Cautionary notes on democratisation: Lessons from India and Zambia

Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 19-45

  Randall, Vicky ^a   Scarritt, James R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ESSEX   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; DEMOCRATISATION; POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS; POLITICAL PROCESS;

INDIA; ZAMBIA;

EID: 0029989932     PISSN: 03063631     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14662049608447723     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. S.P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman and London, 1991).
2. See for instance M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Toward Governance in Africa: Popular Demands and State Responses', in G. Hyden and M. Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1992), 52-4; S. Decalo, 'The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa', African Affairs, 91, 362 (1992), 8, 35; C. Young, 'Democratization in Africa: The Contradictions of a Political Imperative', in J.A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore, 1994), 241-4. For a perhaps excessively pessimistic recent account see S.N. Sangmpam, 'The Overpoliticized State and Democratization: A Theoretical Model', Comparative Politics, 24,4 (1992), 401-17.
3. See for instance M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Toward Governance in Africa: Popular Demands and State Responses', in G. Hyden and M. Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1992), 52-4; S. Decalo, 'The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa', African Affairs, 91, 362 (1992), 8, 35; C. Young, 'Democratization in Africa: The Contradictions of a Political Imperative', in J.A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore, 1994), 241-4. For a perhaps excessively pessimistic recent account see S.N. Sangmpam, 'The Overpoliticized State and Democratization: A Theoretical Model', Comparative Politics, 24,4 (1992), 401-17.
4. See for instance M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Toward Governance in Africa: Popular Demands and State Responses', in G. Hyden and M. Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1992), 52-4; S. Decalo, 'The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa', African Affairs, 91, 362 (1992), 8, 35; C. Young, 'Democratization in Africa: The Contradictions of a Political Imperative', in J.A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore, 1994), 241-4. For a perhaps excessively pessimistic recent account see S.N. Sangmpam, 'The Overpoliticized State and Democratization: A Theoretical Model', Comparative Politics, 24,4 (1992), 401-17.
5. See for instance M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Toward Governance in Africa: Popular Demands and State Responses', in G. Hyden and M. Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1992), 52-4; S. Decalo, 'The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa', African Affairs, 91, 362 (1992), 8, 35; C. Young, 'Democratization in Africa: The Contradictions of a Political Imperative', in J.A. Widner (ed.), Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa (Baltimore, 1994), 241-4. For a perhaps excessively pessimistic recent account see S.N. Sangmpam, 'The Overpoliticized State and Democratization: A Theoretical Model', Comparative Politics, 24,4 (1992), 401-17.
6. This question is raised by R. Sandbrook, 'Liberal Democracy in Africa: A Socialist-Revisionist Perspective', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 22, 2 (1988), 246-7; and by G. Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization (Boulder, CO, 1993), 63-89.
7. This question is raised by R. Sandbrook, 'Liberal Democracy in Africa: A Socialist-Revisionist Perspective', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 22, 2 (1988), 246-7; and by G. Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization (Boulder, CO, 1993), 63-89.
8. For a dissenting view, see M. Kamrava, 'Conceptualising Third World Politics: The State-Society See-saw', Third World Quarterly, 14,4 (1993), 703-16, who includes India in the category of 'pseudo-democracies'.
9. M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', World Politics, 46, 4 (1994), 482-4, consider this to be the type of African regime most likely to sustain democratic reforms.
10. D. Rueschemeyer, E.H. Stephens and J.D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Cambridge, 1992), 43.
11. Rueschemeyer et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy, 283, 287. Others who consider strong, internally democratic parties crucial for democracy include S.M. Lipset, 'The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited', American Sociological Review, 59, 1 (1994) 14-15; and A. Ware, 'Political Parties', in D. Held and C. Pollitt (eds.), New Forms of Democracy (London, 1986), 110-34.
12. Rueschemeyer et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy, 283, 287. Others who consider strong, internally democratic parties crucial for democracy include S.M. Lipset, 'The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited', American Sociological Review, 59, 1 (1994) 14-15; and A. Ware, 'Political Parties', in D. Held and C. Pollitt (eds.), New Forms of Democracy (London, 1986), 110-34.
13. Rueschemeyer et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy, 283, 287. Others who consider strong, internally democratic parties crucial for democracy include S.M. Lipset, 'The Social Requisites of Democracy Revisited', American Sociological Review, 59, 1 (1994) 14-15; and A. Ware, 'Political Parties', in D. Held and C. Pollitt (eds.), New Forms of Democracy (London, 1986), 110-34.
14. Z.F. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited', Comparative Politics (1988), 24-5; K. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', American Sociological Review, 45, 2 (1980), 375-7; R. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, 1989), 108-18, 220-22; A. Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge, 1992), 36-61; J.R. Scarritt and S. Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Can US Policy Make a Difference?', in W. Crotty (ed.), Post-Cold War Policy: Foreign and Military (Boston, 1994); and Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization, 9-16.
15. Z.F. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited', Comparative Politics (1988), 24-5; K. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', American Sociological Review, 45, 2 (1980), 375-7; R. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, 1989), 108-18, 220-22; A. Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge, 1992), 36-61; J.R. Scarritt and S. Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Can US Policy Make a Difference?', in W. Crotty (ed.), Post-Cold War Policy: Foreign and Military (Boston, 1994); and Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization, 9-16.
16. Z.F. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited', Comparative Politics (1988), 24-5; K. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', American Sociological Review, 45, 2 (1980), 375-7; R. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, 1989), 108-18, 220-22; A. Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge, 1992), 36-61; J.R. Scarritt and S. Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Can US Policy Make a Difference?', in W. Crotty (ed.), Post-Cold War Policy: Foreign and Military (Boston, 1994); and Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization, 9-16.
17. Z.F. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited', Comparative Politics (1988), 24-5; K. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', American Sociological Review, 45, 2 (1980), 375-7; R. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, 1989), 108-18, 220-22; A. Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge, 1992), 36-61; J.R. Scarritt and S. Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Can US Policy Make a Difference?', in W. Crotty (ed.), Post-Cold War Policy: Foreign and Military (Boston, 1994); and Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization, 9-16.
18. Z.F. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited', Comparative Politics (1988), 24-5; K. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', American Sociological Review, 45, 2 (1980), 375-7; R. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, 1989), 108-18, 220-22; A. Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge, 1992), 36-61; J.R. Scarritt and S. Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Can US Policy Make a Difference?', in W. Crotty (ed.), Post-Cold War Policy: Foreign and Military (Boston, 1994); and Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization, 9-16.
19. Z.F. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited', Comparative Politics (1988), 24-5; K. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', American Sociological Review, 45, 2 (1980), 375-7; R. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, 1989), 108-18, 220-22; A. Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge, 1992), 36-61; J.R. Scarritt and S. Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa: Can US Policy Make a Difference?', in W. Crotty (ed.), Post-Cold War Policy: Foreign and Military (Boston, 1994); and Sorensen, Democracy and Democratization, 9-16.
20. See Scarritt and Mazaffar, 'Towards Sustainable Democracy in Africa'; J.S. Wunch and D. Oluwu (eds.), The Failure of the Centralized State: Institutions and Self-Governance in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1990).
21. Rueschemeyer et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy, 40-78, 269-91.
22. Within the dependency debate, Rueschemeyer et al. take a 'middle' position, arguing that the possibility of dependent development is an empirical question, whose outcome is strongly affected by a society's class structure amongst other variables.
23. S.M. Lipset, K.-R. Seong and J.C. Torres, 'Comparative Analysis of the Social Requisites of Democracy', International Social Science Journal, 45, 2 (1993), 155-70.
24. See Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 77-90; T. Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization: A Comparative Study of 147 States, 1980-1988 (New York, 1990), 52-3.
25. See Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 77-90; T. Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization: A Comparative Study of 147 States, 1980-1988 (New York, 1990), 52-3.
26. See for instance M. Burdette, Zambia: Between Two Worlds (Boulder, CO, 1988), 75-7, 104-10; C. Gertzel, 'Dissent and Authority in the Zambian One-Party State 1973-80', in C. Gertzel (ed.), C. Baylies and M. Szeftel, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia (Manchester, 1984), 102-6.
27. See for instance M. Burdette, Zambia: Between Two Worlds (Boulder, CO, 1988), 75-7, 104-10; C. Gertzel, 'Dissent and Authority in the Zambian One-Party State 1973-80', in C. Gertzel (ed.), C. Baylies and M. Szeftel, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia (Manchester, 1984), 102-6.
28. K. Panter-Brick, 'Prospects for Democracy in Zambia', Government and Opposition, 29, 2 (1994), 238-40, 244-7; and J.K. van Donge, 'Kaunda and Chiluba: Two Instruments of God's Will or Enduring Patterns of Political Culture in Zambia', paper presented to the African Studies Association of the United Kingdom biennial conference, 1992, 10-14.
29. K. Panter-Brick, 'Prospects for Democracy in Zambia', Government and Opposition, 29, 2 (1994), 238-40, 244-7; and J.K. van Donge, 'Kaunda and Chiluba: Two Instruments of God's Will or Enduring Patterns of Political Culture in Zambia', paper presented to the African Studies Association of the United Kingdom biennial conference, 1992, 10-14.
30. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development', 24.
31. R. Hardgrave and S. Kochanek, India: Government and Politics in a Developing Nation (Fort Worth, TX, 1993), 82.
32. See, for instance, M. Limaye, Indian Polity in Transition (New Delhi, 1992).
33. This is suggested, for instance, by L. and S. Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago, 1987). However it has been pointed out that the educational levels of MPs have steadily risen; 74 per cent of those elected in 1991 were graduates (Hardgrave and Kochanek, India).
34. This is suggested, for instance, by L. and S. Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago, 1987). However it has been pointed out that the educational levels of MPs have steadily risen; 74 per cent of those elected in 1991 were graduates (Hardgrave and Kochanek, India).
35. See Y. Ghimire, 'The Decline of Parliament' (Special Report), India Today, 15 July 1994, 36-40.
36. Gertzel, 'Dissent and Authority in the Zambian One-Party State', 83-9.
37. M. Weiner, India at the Polls, 1980 (Washington, 1980), 44-52.
38. Rudolphs, In Pursuit of Lakshmi, 89.
39. Guardian (London), 10 Feb. 1994.
40. Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', 373-4.
41. All figures are taken from Hardgrave and Kochanek, India.
42. B.-A. Andreasson, G. Geisler and A. Totensen, Setting a Standard for Africa?: Lessons from the 1991 Zambian Elections (Bergen, 1992), 68-77.
43. Aral, 'Democracy and Economic Development', 25.
44. R. Kothari, 'The Congress "System" in India', Asian Survey, 4, 12 (1964), 1161-73.
45. M.J. Zins, 'The Emergency', in Z. Hassan, S.N. Jha and R. Khan (eds.), The State, Political Processes and Identity: Reflections on Modern India (New Delhi, 1989).
46. P. Harries-Jones, Freedom and Labour: Mobilization and Political Control on the Zambian Copperbelt (New York, 1975), 51-152, 216-23; T. Rasmussen, 'The Popular Basis of Anti-colonial Protest', in W. Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia (Manchester, 1974), 40-61.
47. P. Harries-Jones, Freedom and Labour: Mobilization and Political Control on the Zambian Copperbelt (New York, 1975), 51-152, 216-23; T. Rasmussen, 'The Popular Basis of Anti-colonial Protest', in W. Tordoff (ed.), Politics in Zambia (Manchester, 1974), 40-61.
48. Gertzel, Baylies and Szeftel, Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia, 10-11, 95-102; J.R. Scarritt, 'Changes in the Quantity and Effectiveness of Electoral and Party Participation in a One-Party State: Zambia 1973-1991' manuscript (Boulder, CO, 1993).
49. Gertzel, Baylies and Szeftel, Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia, 10-11, 95-102; J.R. Scarritt, 'Changes in the Quantity and Effectiveness of Electoral and Party Participation in a One-Party State: Zambia 1973-1991' manuscript (Boulder, CO, 1993).
50. A. Rusbridger, 'Media Moguls', Guardian Weekend (London), 9 April 1994.
51. Rudolphs, In Pursuit of Lakshmi, 118.
52. B.R. Rubin, 'The Civil Rights Movement in India', Asian Survey, 27,3 (1987), 371-92.
53. Burdette, Zambia, 108; see also R. Molteno and W. Tordoff, 'Conclusion - Independent Zambia: Achievements and Prospects', in Tordoff, Zambia, 369-70.
54. Burdette, Zambia, 108; see also R. Molteno and W. Tordoff, 'Conclusion - Independent Zambia: Achievements and Prospects', in Tordoff, Zambia, 369-70.
55. F. Kasoma, The Press in Zambia: The Development, Role and Control of National Newspapers in Zambia, 1906-1983 (Lusaka, 1986); G.F. Lungu, 'The Church, Labour and the Press in Zambia: The Role of Critical Observers in a One-Party State', African Affairs, 85, 340 (1986).
56. F. Kasoma, The Press in Zambia: The Development, Role and Control of National Newspapers in Zambia, 1906-1983 (Lusaka, 1986); G.F. Lungu, 'The Church, Labour and the Press in Zambia: The Role of Critical Observers in a One-Party State', African Affairs, 85, 340 (1986).
57. Burdette, Zambia 107.
58. M. Bratton, 'Zambia Starts Over', Journal of Democracy, 3, 2 (1992), 90.
59. S. Mitra, 'Crisis and Resilience in Indian Democracy', International Social Science Review, 129 (1991), 568.
60. India is given a mediocre ranking that is below Zambia by Freedom House Survey Team, Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties 1991-1992 (New York, 1992), 243-8. It is given a mediocre ranking that is above Zambia in earlier editions of this volume, and by Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization, 27-8. It is given a ranking that is close to those given Western democracies by Z.F. Aral, Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO, 1991), 147; Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', 388; and Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 62.
61. India is given a mediocre ranking that is below Zambia by Freedom House Survey Team, Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties 1991-1992 (New York, 1992), 243-8. It is given a mediocre ranking that is above Zambia in earlier editions of this volume, and by Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization, 27-8. It is given a ranking that is close to those given Western democracies by Z.F. Aral, Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO, 1991), 147; Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', 388; and Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 62.
62. India is given a mediocre ranking that is below Zambia by Freedom House Survey Team, Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties 1991-1992 (New York, 1992), 243-8. It is given a mediocre ranking that is above Zambia in earlier editions of this volume, and by Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization, 27-8. It is given a ranking that is close to those given Western democracies by Z.F. Aral, Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO, 1991), 147; Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', 388; and Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 62.
63. India is given a mediocre ranking that is below Zambia by Freedom House Survey Team, Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties 1991-1992 (New York, 1992), 243-8. It is given a mediocre ranking that is above Zambia in earlier editions of this volume, and by Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization, 27-8. It is given a ranking that is close to those given Western democracies by Z.F. Aral, Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO, 1991), 147; Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', 388; and Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 62.
64. India is given a mediocre ranking that is below Zambia by Freedom House Survey Team, Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties 1991-1992 (New York, 1992), 243-8. It is given a mediocre ranking that is above Zambia in earlier editions of this volume, and by Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization, 27-8. It is given a ranking that is close to those given Western democracies by Z.F. Aral, Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries (Boulder, CO, 1991), 147; Bollen, 'Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy', 388; and Hadenius, Democracy and Development, 62.
65. J. Manor, 'How and Why Liberal and Representative Politics Emerged in India', Political Studies, 38, 1 (1990), 20-38; and R. Pinkney, Democracy in the Third World (Boulder and Milton Keynes, 1994), 48-9.
66. J. Manor, 'How and Why Liberal and Representative Politics Emerged in India', Political Studies, 38, 1 (1990), 20-38; and R. Pinkney, Democracy in the Third World (Boulder and Milton Keynes, 1994), 48-9.
67. Mitra, 'Crisis and Resilience in Indian Democracy', 568.
68. Hardgrave and Kochanek, India, 12-13.
69. Manor, 'How and Why Liberal and Representative Politics Emerged in India', 25.
70. J. Parpart and T. Shaw, 'Contradiction and Coalition: Class Fractions in Zambia, 1964-1984', Africa Today, 35, 3 (1988), 24, 34, 49-50.
71. F. Frankel, 'Introduction', in F. Frankel and M.S.A. Rao (eds.), Dominance and State Power in Modern India (Delhi, 1989), 2.
72. R. Kothari, The State against Democracy: In Search of Humane Governance (New Haven, 1988), 136.
73. Limaye, Indian Polity in Transition.
74. Hardgrave and Kochanek, India, 22.
75. Burdette, Zambia, 37-8.
76. Republic of Zambia, Monthly Digest of Statistics, 21, 8/9 (1985), 53.
77. B. Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston, 1966).
78. P. Bardhan, The Political Economy of India (Oxford, 1984).
79. B.K. Nehru, 'Western Democracy and the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 1, 2 (1979), 53-70.
80. Limaye, Indian Polity in Transition.
81. A. Kohli, The State and Poverty in India (Cambridge, 1987).