Prematurity as a public health problem: US policy from the 1920s to the 1960s

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 86, Issue 6, 1996, Pages 870-878

  Oppenheimer, Gerald M ^a  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMMUNITY CARE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HUMAN; INFANT; PREMATURITY; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0029973771     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.86.6.870     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Lee K. Frankel, "The Present Status of Maternal and Infant Hygiene in the U.S.," American Journal of Public Health 17 (1927): 1209-1217.
2. During the 1920s, prematurity was variously defined on the basis of preterm birthweight and/or size; the distinction between gestational age and size at birth was known but of little practical value. The definition of a premature infant as one weighing 2500 g or less at birth, proposed by Arvo Yloppo in 1919, was recommended by the Children's Bureau and the American Academy of Pediatrics in the 1930s and by the World Health Organization in 1950. See Jennie Kline, Zena Stein, and Mervyn Susser, Conception to Birth, Epidemiology of Prenatal Development (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1989), 165-156.
3. Harold Jacobziner, "Medical Care Program for Low Birth Weight Infants in New York City," New York State Journal of Medicine 64 (1964): 1616.
4. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 107-123; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 71.
5. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 107-123; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 71.
6. Elizabeth Fee, Disease and Discovery (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).
7. Sheila M. Rothman, Woman's Proper Place (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1978), 144-150.
8. Meckel, Save the Babies, 197-198.
9. Pierre Budin, The Nursling: The Feeding and Hygiene of Premature and Full-Term Infants, trans. W.J. Maloney (London, England: Caxton Publishing, 1907); Thomas E. Cone, History of the Care and Feeding of the Premature Infant (Boston, Mass: Little, Brown, 1985), 24.
10. Pierre Budin, The Nursling: The Feeding and Hygiene of Premature and Full-Term Infants, trans. W.J. Maloney (London, England: Caxton Publishing, 1907); Thomas E. Cone, History of the Care and Feeding of the Premature Infant (Boston, Mass: Little, Brown, 1985), 24.
11. Cone, Premature Infant, 24, 27-29, 50; William A. Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," Pediatrics 64 (1979): 127-141; Jeffrey P. Baker, "The Incubator Controversy: Pediatricians and the Origins of Premature Infant Technology in the United States, 1890 to 1910," Pediatrics 87 (1991): 654-662; Mary Katherine Herwick, "The 'Pride of the General' - Its Babies," American Journal of Nursing 30 (1930): 57.
12. Cone, Premature Infant, 24, 27-29, 50; William A. Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," Pediatrics 64 (1979): 127-141; Jeffrey P. Baker, "The Incubator Controversy: Pediatricians and the Origins of Premature Infant Technology in the United States, 1890 to 1910," Pediatrics 87 (1991): 654-662; Mary Katherine Herwick, "The 'Pride of the General' - Its Babies," American Journal of Nursing 30 (1930): 57.
13. Cone, Premature Infant, 24, 27-29, 50; William A. Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," Pediatrics 64 (1979): 127-141; Jeffrey P. Baker, "The Incubator Controversy: Pediatricians and the Origins of Premature Infant Technology in the United States, 1890 to 1910," Pediatrics 87 (1991): 654-662; Mary Katherine Herwick, "The 'Pride of the General' - Its Babies," American Journal of Nursing 30 (1930): 57.
14. Cone, Premature Infant, 24, 27-29, 50; William A. Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," Pediatrics 64 (1979): 127-141; Jeffrey P. Baker, "The Incubator Controversy: Pediatricians and the Origins of Premature Infant Technology in the United States, 1890 to 1910," Pediatrics 87 (1991): 654-662; Mary Katherine Herwick, "The 'Pride of the General' - Its Babies," American Journal of Nursing 30 (1930): 57.
15. Cone, Premature Infant, 52-56; Ellen Schalin and Margaret W. Stewart, "The Care of Premature Infants," American Journal of Nursing 21 (1927): 343-344. Quote is from Schalin and Stewart, p. 344.
16. Cone, Premature Infant, 52-56; Ellen Schalin and Margaret W. Stewart, "The Care of Premature Infants," American Journal of Nursing 21 (1927): 343-344. Quote is from Schalin and Stewart, p. 344.
17. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1986), 171-195; Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-in (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1977), 132-177; Cone, Premature Infant, 48.
18. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1986), 171-195; Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-in (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1977), 132-177; Cone, Premature Infant, 48.
19. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1986), 171-195; Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-in (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1977), 132-177; Cone, Premature Infant, 48.
20. Cone, Premature Infant, 48; Baker, "Incubator Controversy," 659.
21. Cone, Premature Infant, 48; Baker, "Incubator Controversy," 659.
22. Barnet E. Bonar, "Problems of the Newborn," Journal of Pediatrics 1 (1932): 92; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24. 1989; F. Howell Wright, Reminiscences of the Bobs Roberts Memorial Hospital (Chicago, III: University of Chicago, 1980), 25, 43; interview with Dr. Joseph Dancis, March 26, 1992.
23. Barnet E. Bonar, "Problems of the Newborn," Journal of Pediatrics 1 (1932): 92; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24. 1989; F. Howell Wright, Reminiscences of the Bobs Roberts Memorial Hospital (Chicago, III: University of Chicago, 1980), 25, 43; interview with Dr. Joseph Dancis, March 26, 1992.
24. Donald Dye and Karen Tarpey, "Mater-nity and Infant Care Services in Chicago, Retrospectus: Our Legacy, Our Challenge," in Historical Review and Recent Advances in Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine, Vol. 2, ed. George F. Smith, Dharmapuri Vidyasagar (Mead Johnson Nutritional Division, 1983), 140; Cone, Premature Infant, 46; Morris Fishbein, with Sol Theron DeLee, Joseph Bolivar DeLee (New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1949), 65-66; Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," 136-137.
25. Donald Dye and Karen Tarpey, "Mater-nity and Infant Care Services in Chicago, Retrospectus: Our Legacy, Our Challenge," in Historical Review and Recent Advances in Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine, Vol. 2, ed. George F. Smith, Dharmapuri Vidyasagar (Mead Johnson Nutritional Division, 1983), 140; Cone, Premature Infant, 46; Morris Fishbein, with Sol Theron DeLee, Joseph Bolivar DeLee (New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1949), 65-66; Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," 136-137.
26. Donald Dye and Karen Tarpey, "Mater-nity and Infant Care Services in Chicago, Retrospectus: Our Legacy, Our Challenge," in Historical Review and Recent Advances in Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine, Vol. 2, ed. George F. Smith, Dharmapuri Vidyasagar (Mead Johnson Nutritional Division, 1983), 140; Cone, Premature Infant, 46; Morris Fishbein, with Sol Theron DeLee, Joseph Bolivar DeLee (New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1949), 65-66; Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," 136-137.
27. Donald Dye and Karen Tarpey, "Mater-nity and Infant Care Services in Chicago, Retrospectus: Our Legacy, Our Challenge," in Historical Review and Recent Advances in Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine, Vol. 2, ed. George F. Smith, Dharmapuri Vidyasagar (Mead Johnson Nutritional Division, 1983), 140; Cone, Premature Infant, 46; Morris Fishbein, with Sol Theron DeLee, Joseph Bolivar DeLee (New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1949), 65-66; Silverman, "Incubator-Baby Side Shows," 136-137.
28. Julius H. Hess and Evelyn C. Lundeen, The Premature Infant (Philadelphia, Pa: J.B. Lippincott, 1941); William A. Silverman, "Neonatal Pediatrics at the Century Mark," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 32 (1989): 161-162.
29. Julius H. Hess and Evelyn C. Lundeen, The Premature Infant (Philadelphia, Pa: J.B. Lippincott, 1941); William A. Silverman, "Neonatal Pediatrics at the Century Mark," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 32 (1989): 161-162.
30. Julius H. Hess, "An Electric-Heated Water-Jacketed Infant Incubator and Bed," Journal of the American Medical Association 64 (1915): 1068-1069.
31. Gordon B. Avery, "Neonatology: Perspective in the Mid 1980s," in Neonatology, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia, Pa: J.B. Lippincott. 1987), 3; William A. Silverman, Retrolental Fibroplasia, A Modern Parable (New York, NY: Grune & Stratton, 1980), 16. Quotes are from, respectively, Avery, p. 3, and Silverman, p. 16.
32. Gordon B. Avery, "Neonatology: Perspective in the Mid 1980s," in Neonatology, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia, Pa: J.B. Lippincott. 1987), 3; William A. Silverman, Retrolental Fibroplasia, A Modern Parable (New York, NY: Grune & Stratton, 1980), 16. Quotes are from, respectively, Avery, p. 3, and Silverman, p. 16.
33. Interview with Dr. William Silverman, May 14, 1989.
34. Julius H. Hess, "Experiences Gained in a Thirty Year Study of Prematurely Born Infants," Pediatrics 11 (1953): 428; Julius H. Hess, "The Chicago City-Wide Plan for the Care of Premature Infants," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 400. Quote is from Hess, p. 428.
35. Julius H. Hess, "Experiences Gained in a Thirty Year Study of Prematurely Born Infants," Pediatrics 11 (1953): 428; Julius H. Hess, "The Chicago City-Wide Plan for the Care of Premature Infants," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 400. Quote is from Hess, p. 428.
36. "Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Pediatrics" Round Table Discussion on Prematurity, Cleveland, June 11, 1934," The Journal of Pediatrics 6 (1935):110-111.
37. Cone, Premature Infant, 78-79; Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston (Boston, Mass: Little, Brown, 1983), 243-244.
38. Cone, Premature Infant, 78-79; Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston (Boston, Mass: Little, Brown, 1983), 243-244.
39. Hess, "Chicago City-Wide Plan," 400.
40. Herman N. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants in Chicago during 1935," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 270-276; Eloise Talbot Phelps, "Protecting the Premature, How the Board of Health Cares for Chicago's Premature Babies," Public Health Nursing 28 (1936): 305-307; "Association News," American Journal of Public Health 17 (1927): 1255; Herman Bundesen, "Infant Incubator Homecoming," July 25,1934, Hess Papers, Box 2, University of Chicago Library. Quote is from "Infant Incubator Homecoming."
41. Herman N. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants in Chicago during 1935," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 270-276; Eloise Talbot Phelps, "Protecting the Premature, How the Board of Health Cares for Chicago's Premature Babies," Public Health Nursing 28 (1936): 305-307; "Association News," American Journal of Public Health 17 (1927): 1255; Herman Bundesen, "Infant Incubator Homecoming," July 25,1934, Hess Papers, Box 2, University of Chicago Library. Quote is from "Infant Incubator Homecoming."
42. Herman N. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants in Chicago during 1935," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 270-276; Eloise Talbot Phelps, "Protecting the Premature, How the Board of Health Cares for Chicago's Premature Babies," Public Health Nursing 28 (1936): 305-307; "Association News," American Journal of Public Health 17 (1927): 1255; Herman Bundesen, "Infant Incubator Homecoming," July 25,1934, Hess Papers, Box 2, University of Chicago Library. Quote is from "Infant Incubator Homecoming."
43. Herman N. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants in Chicago during 1935," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 270-276; Eloise Talbot Phelps, "Protecting the Premature, How the Board of Health Cares for Chicago's Premature Babies," Public Health Nursing 28 (1936): 305-307; "Association News," American Journal of Public Health 17 (1927): 1255; Herman Bundesen, "Infant Incubator Homecoming," July 25,1934, Hess Papers, Box 2, University of Chicago Library. Quote is from "Infant Incubator Homecoming."
44. Herman N. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants in Chicago during 1935," Journal of American Medical Association 107 (1936): 270-276; Eloise Talbot Phelps, "Protecting the Premature, How the Board of Health Cares for Chicago's Premature Babies," Public Health Nursing 28 (1936): 305-307; "Association News," American Journal of Public Health 17 (1927): 1255; Herman Bundesen, "Infant Incubator Homecoming," July 25,1934, Hess Papers, Box 2, University of Chicago Library. Quote is from "Infant Incubator Homecoming."
45. Herman N. Bundesen, "The Premature Baby, What Chicago Does for Him," Modern Hospital 48 (1937): 69; Hess, "Chicago City-Wide Plan," 401. Quote is from Bundesen, p. 69.
46. Herman N. Bundesen, "The Premature Baby, What Chicago Does for Him," Modern Hospital 48 (1937): 69; Hess, "Chicago City-Wide Plan," 401. Quote is from Bundesen, p. 69.
47. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants," 270-276; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago Keeps Babies Alive," Ladies Home Journal 55 (1938): 18.
48. Bundesen et al., "Mortality of New-Born Infants," 270-276; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago Keeps Babies Alive," Ladies Home Journal 55 (1938): 18.
49. Annual Report (Chicago, Ill: Chicago Board of Health, 1933), 10; Herman N. Bundesen, "What to Do in Case the Baby Is Prematurely Born," Ladies' Home Journal 57 (November 1940): 94; "The Nation," Newsweek April 25, 1936, p. 11; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago's Rough and Tumble Death Fighter," Reader's Digest 52 (1948): 73; Dye and Tarpey, "Maternity and Infant Care Services," 149. Quote is from Newsweek, p. 11.
50. Annual Report (Chicago, Ill: Chicago Board of Health, 1933), 10; Herman N. Bundesen, "What to Do in Case the Baby Is Prematurely Born," Ladies' Home Journal 57 (November 1940): 94; "The Nation," Newsweek April 25, 1936, p. 11; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago's Rough and Tumble Death Fighter," Reader's Digest 52 (1948): 73; Dye and Tarpey, "Maternity and Infant Care Services," 149. Quote is from Newsweek, p. 11.
51. Annual Report (Chicago, Ill: Chicago Board of Health, 1933), 10; Herman N. Bundesen, "What to Do in Case the Baby Is Prematurely Born," Ladies' Home Journal 57 (November 1940): 94; "The Nation," Newsweek April 25, 1936, p. 11; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago's Rough and Tumble Death Fighter," Reader's Digest 52 (1948): 73; Dye and Tarpey, "Maternity and Infant Care Services," 149. Quote is from Newsweek, p. 11.
52. Annual Report (Chicago, Ill: Chicago Board of Health, 1933), 10; Herman N. Bundesen, "What to Do in Case the Baby Is Prematurely Born," Ladies' Home Journal 57 (November 1940): 94; "The Nation," Newsweek April 25, 1936, p. 11; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago's Rough and Tumble Death Fighter," Reader's Digest 52 (1948): 73; Dye and Tarpey, "Maternity and Infant Care Services," 149. Quote is from Newsweek, p. 11.
53. Annual Report (Chicago, Ill: Chicago Board of Health, 1933), 10; Herman N. Bundesen, "What to Do in Case the Baby Is Prematurely Born," Ladies' Home Journal 57 (November 1940): 94; "The Nation," Newsweek April 25, 1936, p. 11; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago's Rough and Tumble Death Fighter," Reader's Digest 52 (1948): 73; Dye and Tarpey, "Maternity and Infant Care Services," 149. Quote is from Newsweek, p. 11.
54. Annual Report (Chicago, Ill: Chicago Board of Health, 1933), 10; Herman N. Bundesen, "What to Do in Case the Baby Is Prematurely Born," Ladies' Home Journal 57 (November 1940): 94; "The Nation," Newsweek April 25, 1936, p. 11; Paul De Kruif, "Chicago's Rough and Tumble Death Fighter," Reader's Digest 52 (1948): 73; Dye and Tarpey, "Maternity and Infant Care Services," 149. Quote is from Newsweek, p. 11.
55. De Kruif, "Chicago Keeps Babies Alive," 80.
56. Florence L. McKay, "State Program for Premature Infants," Hospitals 12 (1938): 41-43; Florence L. McKay, "Massachusetts State Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 72-78; Maternal and Child-Health Services under the Social Security Act, Development of Program, Title V, Part 1, 1936-39, publication no. 259, (Washington D.C.: Children's Bureau, 1941); 44-45; H.R. O'Brien and Marion I. Murphy, "A County Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 46; Hess and Lundeen, The Premature Infant, 247.
57. Florence L. McKay, "State Program for Premature Infants," Hospitals 12 (1938): 41-43; Florence L. McKay, "Massachusetts State Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 72-78; Maternal and Child-Health Services under the Social Security Act, Development of Program, Title V, Part 1, 1936-39, publication no. 259, (Washington D.C.: Children's Bureau, 1941); 44-45; H.R. O'Brien and Marion I. Murphy, "A County Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 46; Hess and Lundeen, The Premature Infant, 247.
58. Florence L. McKay, "State Program for Premature Infants," Hospitals 12 (1938): 41-43; Florence L. McKay, "Massachusetts State Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 72-78; Maternal and Child-Health Services under the Social Security Act, Development of Program, Title V, Part 1, 1936-39, publication no. 259, (Washington D.C.: Children's Bureau, 1941); 44-45; H.R. O'Brien and Marion I. Murphy, "A County Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 46; Hess and Lundeen, The Premature Infant, 247.
59. Florence L. McKay, "State Program for Premature Infants," Hospitals 12 (1938): 41-43; Florence L. McKay, "Massachusetts State Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 72-78; Maternal and Child-Health Services under the Social Security Act, Development of Program, Title V, Part 1, 1936-39, publication no. 259, (Washington D.C.: Children's Bureau, 1941); 44-45; H.R. O'Brien and Marion I. Murphy, "A County Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 46; Hess and Lundeen, The Premature Infant, 247.
60. Florence L. McKay, "State Program for Premature Infants," Hospitals 12 (1938): 41-43; Florence L. McKay, "Massachusetts State Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 72-78; Maternal and Child-Health Services under the Social Security Act, Development of Program, Title V, Part 1, 1936-39, publication no. 259, (Washington D.C.: Children's Bureau, 1941); 44-45; H.R. O'Brien and Marion I. Murphy, "A County Program for the Care of Prematures," American Journal of Public Health 31 (1941): 46; Hess and Lundeen, The Premature Infant, 247.
61. Leona Baumgartner to Martha May Elliot, March 13, 1937; Ethel Dunham to Leona Baumgartner, March 18, 1937; Baumgartner to Dunham, May 31, 1938, Children's Bureau, RG 102, National Archives; "Maternal, Infant and Child Health, Study of Prematurely Born Infants, New York Hospital," The Child 3 (1938): 108; "Current Field Studies, 1938-39," RG 102, National Archives; New York City, Annual Report of the Board of Health, 1938, 53; Julia Bess Frank, "A Personal History of Dr. Leona Baumgartner" (M.D. thesis, Yale University, March 1977).
62. Leona Baumgartner to Martha May Elliot, March 13, 1937; Ethel Dunham to Leona Baumgartner, March 18, 1937; Baumgartner to Dunham, May 31, 1938, Children's Bureau, RG 102, National Archives; "Maternal, Infant and Child Health, Study of Prematurely Born Infants, New York Hospital," The Child 3 (1938): 108; "Current Field Studies, 1938-39," RG 102, National Archives; New York City, Annual Report of the Board of Health, 1938, 53; Julia Bess Frank, "A Personal History of Dr. Leona Baumgartner" (M.D. thesis, Yale University, March 1977).
63. Leona Baumgartner to Martha May Elliot, March 13, 1937; Ethel Dunham to Leona Baumgartner, March 18, 1937; Baumgartner to Dunham, May 31, 1938, Children's Bureau, RG 102, National Archives; "Maternal, Infant and Child Health, Study of Prematurely Born Infants, New York Hospital," The Child 3 (1938): 108; "Current Field Studies, 1938-39," RG 102, National Archives; New York City, Annual Report of the Board of Health, 1938, 53; Julia Bess Frank, "A Personal History of Dr. Leona Baumgartner" (M.D. thesis, Yale University, March 1977).
64. Leona Baumgartner to Martha May Elliot, March 13, 1937; Ethel Dunham to Leona Baumgartner, March 18, 1937; Baumgartner to Dunham, May 31, 1938, Children's Bureau, RG 102, National Archives; "Maternal, Infant and Child Health, Study of Prematurely Born Infants, New York Hospital," The Child 3 (1938): 108; "Current Field Studies, 1938-39," RG 102, National Archives; New York City, Annual Report of the Board of Health, 1938, 53; Julia Bess Frank, "A Personal History of Dr. Leona Baumgartner" (M.D. thesis, Yale University, March 1977).
65. Helen M. Wallace, Leona Baumgartner, and Molly L. Park, "The Average Length of Stay in the Hospital of Infants Born Prematurely," Pediatrics 1 (1948): 66-69; Helen M. Wallace and Leona Baumgartner, "The Care of Premature Infants in New York City," American Journal of Public Health 39 (1949): 845-853; Leona Baumgartner, "The Status of Infant Mortality in New York City." December 1947, Baumgartner Papers, Countway Library, Harvard University.
66. Helen M. Wallace, Leona Baumgartner, and Molly L. Park, "The Average Length of Stay in the Hospital of Infants Born Prematurely," Pediatrics 1 (1948): 66-69; Helen M. Wallace and Leona Baumgartner, "The Care of Premature Infants in New York City," American Journal of Public Health 39 (1949): 845-853; Leona Baumgartner, "The Status of Infant Mortality in New York City." December 1947, Baumgartner Papers, Countway Library, Harvard University.
67. Helen M. Wallace, Leona Baumgartner, and Molly L. Park, "The Average Length of Stay in the Hospital of Infants Born Prematurely," Pediatrics 1 (1948): 66-69; Helen M. Wallace and Leona Baumgartner, "The Care of Premature Infants in New York City," American Journal of Public Health 39 (1949): 845-853; Leona Baumgartner, "The Status of Infant Mortality in New York City." December 1947, Baumgartner Papers, Countway Library, Harvard University.
68. Leona Baumgartner, "The Program for Prematurely Born Infants in New York City," New York State Journal of Medicine 50 (1950): 290.
69. Interview with Dr. John Sinclair, May 18, 1992.
70. Interview with Dr. William Silverman, May 14, 1989.
71. Janet B. Hardy, "Special Program Helps Premature Babies to Survive," The Child 11 (1946): 82-85; Helen Wallace, memo to Leona Baumgartner, February 27, 1950, Baumgartner Papers; Robert J. Murphy, "North Carolina Premature Infant Program." North Carolina Medical Journal 12 (1951): 12-18; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24, 1989.
72. Janet B. Hardy, "Special Program Helps Premature Babies to Survive," The Child 11 (1946): 82-85; Helen Wallace, memo to Leona Baumgartner, February 27, 1950, Baumgartner Papers; Robert J. Murphy, "North Carolina Premature Infant Program." North Carolina Medical Journal 12 (1951): 12-18; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24, 1989.
73. Janet B. Hardy, "Special Program Helps Premature Babies to Survive," The Child 11 (1946): 82-85; Helen Wallace, memo to Leona Baumgartner, February 27, 1950, Baumgartner Papers; Robert J. Murphy, "North Carolina Premature Infant Program." North Carolina Medical Journal 12 (1951): 12-18; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24, 1989.
74. Leona Baumgartner, "The Status of Infant Mortality in N.Y.C.," December 1947, talk #12, manuscript, Baumgartner Papers; New York Academy of Medicine, Infant and Maternal Care in New York City (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1952), vii; New York City, Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1949, pp. 59-62.
75. Leona Baumgartner, "The Status of Infant Mortality in N.Y.C.," December 1947, talk #12, manuscript, Baumgartner Papers; New York Academy of Medicine, Infant and Maternal Care in New York City (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1952), vii; New York City, Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1949, pp. 59-62.
76. Leona Baumgartner, "The Status of Infant Mortality in N.Y.C.," December 1947, talk #12, manuscript, Baumgartner Papers; New York Academy of Medicine, Infant and Maternal Care in New York City (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1952), vii; New York City, Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1949, pp. 59-62.
77. Leona Baumgartner, Harold Jacobziner, Jean Pakter, "A Critical Survey of the New York Program for the Care of Premature Infants," The Journal of Pediatrics 54 (1959):727.
78. Helen M. Wallace, Margaret A. Losty, Samuel M. Wishik, "Prematurity as a Public Health Problem," American Journal of Public Health 40 (1950): 43; Leona Baumgartner, "A Critical Survey," 727.
79. Helen M. Wallace, Margaret A. Losty, Samuel M. Wishik, "Prematurity as a Public Health Problem," American Journal of Public Health 40 (1950): 43; Leona Baumgartner, "A Critical Survey," 727.
80. Interview with Leona Baumgartner, June 21, 1989; Daniel M. Fox, Health Policies, Health Politics, The British and American Experience, 1911-1965 (Princeton, Pa: Princeton University Press, 1986), 131; Silverman, Retrolental Fibroplasia, 71.
81. Interview with Leona Baumgartner, June 21, 1989; Daniel M. Fox, Health Policies, Health Politics, The British and American Experience, 1911-1965 (Princeton, Pa: Princeton University Press, 1986), 131; Silverman, Retrolental Fibroplasia, 71.
82. Wallace, "Prematurity as a Public Health Problem," 43.
83. Interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24, 1989.
84. Margaret A. Losty, Irene Orlofsky, and Helen M. Wallace, "A Transport Service for Premature Babies," The American Journal of Nursing 50 (1950): 10-12; Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1949.
85. Margaret A. Losty, Irene Orlofsky, and Helen M. Wallace, "A Transport Service for Premature Babies," The American Journal of Nursing 50 (1950): 10-12; Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1949.
86. Baumgartner, "A Critical Survey," 727; American Academy of Pediatrics, Child Health Services and Pediatric Education (New York, NY: Commonwealth Fund, 1949); Alfred Yankauer et al., "Institutes for Physicians and Nurses in the Care of Premature Children, an Evaluation of Five Years Experience." Pediatrics 18 (1956): 95-101.
87. Baumgartner, "A Critical Survey," 727; American Academy of Pediatrics, Child Health Services and Pediatric Education (New York, NY: Commonwealth Fund, 1949); Alfred Yankauer et al., "Institutes for Physicians and Nurses in the Care of Premature Children, an Evaluation of Five Years Experience." Pediatrics 18 (1956): 95-101.
88. Baumgartner, "A Critical Survey," 727; American Academy of Pediatrics, Child Health Services and Pediatric Education (New York, NY: Commonwealth Fund, 1949); Alfred Yankauer et al., "Institutes for Physicians and Nurses in the Care of Premature Children, an Evaluation of Five Years Experience." Pediatrics 18 (1956): 95-101.
89. Interview with Dr. Leonard Glass, December 12, 1991.
90. Edwin F. Daily, "What Hospitals Can Do about the High Premature Infant Mortality Rate," Hospitals 25 (1951): 42; Helen M. Wallace et al., "Payment for Hospital Care of Premature Infant," Pediatrics 12 (1953): 430-441.
91. Edwin F. Daily, "What Hospitals Can Do about the High Premature Infant Mortality Rate," Hospitals 25 (1951): 42; Helen M. Wallace et al., "Payment for Hospital Care of Premature Infant," Pediatrics 12 (1953): 430-441.
92. Report of the Master Plan Committee on the Applications for Federal Funds from Hospitals in New York City, June 25, 1952, Hospital Council Papers, N.Y. Academy of Medicine; Jean Pakter and Harold Jacobziner, "A Five-Year Review of the Premature Infant Program in New York City," New York State Journal of Medicine 54 (1954): 3210.
93. Report of the Master Plan Committee on the Applications for Federal Funds from Hospitals in New York City, June 25, 1952, Hospital Council Papers, N.Y. Academy of Medicine; Jean Pakter and Harold Jacobziner, "A Five-Year Review of the Premature Infant Program in New York City," New York State Journal of Medicine 54 (1954): 3210.
94. Ray E. Trussel, Prepayment for Hospital Care in New York State: A Report on the Eight Blue Cross Plans Serving New York Residents (New York, NY: Columbia University School of Public Health and Administrative Medicine, 1960), 50; Deputy Commissioner Paul M. Densen to Dr. Jean Pakter, Memorandum, December 27, 1960, and to Commissioner Leona Baumgartner, Memorandum, May 17, 1960, Files, New York City Department of Health; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24, 1989.
95. Ray E. Trussel, Prepayment for Hospital Care in New York State: A Report on the Eight Blue Cross Plans Serving New York Residents (New York, NY: Columbia University School of Public Health and Administrative Medicine, 1960), 50; Deputy Commissioner Paul M. Densen to Dr. Jean Pakter, Memorandum, December 27, 1960, and to Commissioner Leona Baumgartner, Memorandum, May 17, 1960, Files, New York City Department of Health; interview with Dr. Jean Pakter, February 24, 1989.
96. Baumgartner, "A Critical Survey," 733-734.
97. Interview with Dr. William Silverman, May 14, 1989.
98. Harry Bawkin, "The Home Care of the Premature Infant," Journal of Pediatrics 34 (1949): 654-655.
99. John C. Sinclair and Michael E. Bracken, eds., Effective Care of the Newborn Infant (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1992), 44-47; Cone, Premature Infant, 113-135.
100. John C. Sinclair and Michael E. Bracken, eds., Effective Care of the Newborn Infant (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1992), 44-47; Cone, Premature Infant, 113-135.
101. Silverman, Retrolental Fibroplasia, 74.
102. Ibid., xv, 79-81; D.P. Davies, "The First Feed of Low Birthweight Infants," Archives of Disease in Childhood 53 (1978): 187-192.
103. Ibid., xv, 79-81; D.P. Davies, "The First Feed of Low Birthweight Infants," Archives of Disease in Childhood 53 (1978): 187-192.
104. Cone, Premature Infant, 180-181; Mildred T. Stahlman, "Newborn Intensive Care: Success or Failure?" Journal of Pediatrics 105 (1984): 162-167; interview with Dr. Lawrence Gartner, January 14, 1992.
105. Cone, Premature Infant, 180-181; Mildred T. Stahlman, "Newborn Intensive Care: Success or Failure?" Journal of Pediatrics 105 (1984): 162-167; interview with Dr. Lawrence Gartner, January 14, 1992.
106. Nonetheless, public health agencies continued to work closely with neonatal units, neonatologists, and hospitals, playing an important role, for example, in regulating regionalized perinatal programs.
107. Rosemary Stevens, " 'A Poor Sort of Memory': Voluntary Hospitals and Government before the Depression," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 60 (1982): 551-584.
108. Stevens is quoting from Louis Carroll's Through the Looking Glass.