Coping with transition: Insights from Kyrgyzstan

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 53-68

  Howell, Jude ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC CRISIS; HOUSEHOLD COPING STRATEGY; TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY;

KYRGYZSTAN;

EID: 0029959670     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599650035770     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
2. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
3. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
4. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
5. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
6. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
7. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
8. J Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', World Development, 16 (9), 1988, pp 1099-1112; P Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan', Disasters, 10 (3), 1986, pp 181-188; G Hyden, 'Responses from below, a tale of two Tanzanian villages', Food Policy, 15, 1990, pp 299-30 5; N Jodha, 'Effectiveness of farmers' adjustment to risk', Economic and Political Weekly, 13 (25), 1978, A38-48; R Lambert, 'Monitoring food security and coping strategies: lessons learnt from the SADS project, Mopti region, Mali', Save the Children Fund Working Paper, no 8, May 1994, pp 1-28; R Longhurst, 'Household food strategies in response to seasonality and famine', IDS Bulletin, 17 (3), 1986, pp 27-35; A Pyle, 'The resilience of households to famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982-89', Disasters, 16 (1), 1992, pp 19-2 7; and D L Tschirley & M T Weber, 'Food security strategies under extremely adverse conditions: the determinants of household income and consumption in rural Mozambique', World Development, 22 (2), 1994, pp 159-173.
9. See A Sen, Poverty and Famine, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1981, for a detailed exposition of an entitlements approach to famine.
10. C Sage, 'Deconstructing the household: women's roles under commodity relations in highland Bolivia', in J H Momsen & V Kinnaird (eds), Different Places, Different Voices: Gender and Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, London: Routledge, 1993, pp 243-255; D L Wolf, 'Daughters, decisions and domination: an empirical and conceptual critique of household strategies', Development and Change, 21, 1990, pp 43-74; and K Young, 'Household resource management', in L Ostergaard (ed), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide, London: Routledge, 1992, pp 135-164.
11. C Sage, 'Deconstructing the household: women's roles under commodity relations in highland Bolivia', in J H Momsen & V Kinnaird (eds), Different Places, Different Voices: Gender and Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, London: Routledge, 1993, pp 243-255; D L Wolf, 'Daughters, decisions and domination: an empirical and conceptual critique of household strategies', Development and Change, 21, 1990, pp 43-74; and K Young, 'Household resource management', in L Ostergaard (ed), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide, London: Routledge, 1992, pp 135-164.
12. C Sage, 'Deconstructing the household: women's roles under commodity relations in highland Bolivia', in J H Momsen & V Kinnaird (eds), Different Places, Different Voices: Gender and Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, London: Routledge, 1993, pp 243-255; D L Wolf, 'Daughters, decisions and domination: an empirical and conceptual critique of household strategies', Development and Change, 21, 1990, pp 43-74; and K Young, 'Household resource management', in L Ostergaard (ed), Gender and Development: A Practical Guide, London: Routledge, 1992, pp 135-164.
13. Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies', p 1100.
14. By livelihood or household resource base we understand the totality of human capital and liquid, capital and productive assets that household members deploy to reproduce and sustain the household.
15. An oblast is an administrative division. Each oblast comprises a number of raions. Kyrgyzstan has seven oblasts.
16. Of the 162 individuals interviewed, 128 were women (79%) and 34 (21%) men. Poor households were identified from lists drawn up by the Social Assistance departments at raion level and by village leaders for the purposes of relief distribution. Only those households with dependent children were randomly selected for interview as the focus of the funding agency, the Save the Children Fund, was on children rather than poor households per se. As there were no detailed household income surveys available and, given the shortage of time, it was not possible to ascertain the correctness of these lists. Nevertheless through observation and by asking interviewees to name poor and rich households in the village we were able to cross-check and supplement the original lists. In total we were able to interview seven households which were perceived as rich.
17. This research was initiated and sponsored by the Save the Children Fund, which has been engaged in relief and development work in Central Asia since 1991. Additional funding was also provided by the UK Know-How Fund. The research team consisted of the author as team leader, Mariam Edilova, Sagyn Ismailova and Meded Sultanbaev as local researchers and Bumairam Ismailova as interpreter. I am indebted to my co-researchers and interpreter for their hard work, enthusiasm and insights. The author takes sole responsibility for the analysis and views expressed here.
18. For an overview of the current economic situation in Central Asia, see U Cevikoz, 'A brief account of the economic situation in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia,' Central Asian Survey, 13 (1), 1994, pp 45-50. For a general introduction to the history and politics of the region, see A Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia, Islam or Nationalism, London: Zed, 1994; and E Allworth (ed), Central Asia, 120 years of Russian Rule, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989.
19. For an overview of the current economic situation in Central Asia, see U Cevikoz, 'A brief account of the economic situation in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia,' Central Asian Survey, 13 (1), 1994, pp 45-50. For a general introduction to the history and politics of the region, see A Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia, Islam or Nationalism, London: Zed, 1994; and E Allworth (ed), Central Asia, 120 years of Russian Rule, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989.
20. For an overview of the current economic situation in Central Asia, see U Cevikoz, 'A brief account of the economic situation in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia,' Central Asian Survey, 13 (1), 1994, pp 45-50. For a general introduction to the history and politics of the region, see A Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia, Islam or Nationalism, London: Zed, 1994; and E Allworth (ed), Central Asia, 120 years of Russian Rule, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989.
21. See V Rumiantsev, 'Employment of the population', paper presented at the National Seminar on Poverty and Social Protection in the Kyrgyz Republic, September 1994, p 1.
22. Ibid, pp 11, 1.
23. Ibid, p 1. Also in a survey of 171 enterprises carried out in May-June 1994 by Windell et al (1995) it was found that total employment fell by a third between December 1991 and March 1994. J Windell, R Anker & G Sziraczki, Kyrgyzstan: Enterprise restructuring and labour shedding in a free fall economy, 1991-1994, Labour Market Papers, 5, Geneva: ILO Employment Department, 1995.
24. Ibid, p 1. Also in a survey of 171 enterprises carried out in May-June 1994 by Windell et al (1995) it was found that total employment fell by a third between December 1991 and March 1994. J Windell, R Anker & G Sziraczki, Kyrgyzstan: Enterprise restructuring and labour shedding in a free fall economy, 1991-1994, Labour Market Papers, 5, Geneva: ILO Employment Department, 1995.
25. Rumiantsev, 'Employment of the population', p 1.
26. See J Falkingham & R Ackland, 'A profile of poverty in Kyrgyzstan', paper presented at the National Seminar on Poverty and Social Protection in the Kyrgyz Republic, September 1994, p 2.
27. Ibid, p 22.
28. Ibid, p 27.
29. Ibid, p 28.
30. In the Soviet period a range of allowances as paid to various categories of people such as the old, war veterans, hero mothers (mothers with over 10 children), mothers, widows, single-parent families and the disabled. See World Bank, Kyrgyzstan: The Transition to a Market Economy, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1993.
31. See K Kuehnast, 'Women and poverty in Kyrgyzstan during economic transition', paper included at the National Seminar on Poverty and Social Protection in the Kyrgyz Republic, September 1994, pp 1-13.
32. D Rahmato, 'Peasant survival strategies in Ethiopia', Disasters, 12 (4), 1988, pp 326-344.
33. In Batken, for example, 80% of children in 1990 received milk products from the milk-kitchens. By 1994 this figure had fallen to 20.3%. For further details of the impact of the crisis on children see the Report on Household Coping Strategies in Kyrgyzstan, prepared for the Save the Children Fund, December 1994, pp 1-55. For a statistical comparison of the condition of children in the former Soviet Union see B A Carlson, 'The condition of children in the countries of the Former Soviet Union (FSU): a statistical review', The Journal of Development Studies, 31 (1), 1994, pp 1-16.
34. In Batken, for example, 80% of children in 1990 received milk products from the milk-kitchens. By 1994 this figure had fallen to 20.3%. For further details of the impact of the crisis on children see the Report on Household Coping Strategies in Kyrgyzstan, prepared for the Save the Children Fund, December 1994, pp 1-55. For a statistical comparison of the condition of children in the former Soviet Union see B A Carlson, 'The condition of children in the countries of the Former Soviet Union (FSU): a statistical review', The Journal of Development Studies, 31 (1), 1994, pp 1-16.
35. Rahmato, 'Peasant survival strategies in Ethiopia'; and Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan'.
36. Rahmato, 'Peasant survival strategies in Ethiopia'; and Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan'.
37. Cutler, 'The response to drought of Beja famine refugees in Sudan'.
38. M Watts, Silent Violence, Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1983.
39. A de Waal & M el Amin, Survival in Northern Darfur 1985-1986, Nyala, Sudan: Save the Children Fund, January 1986.
40. Corbett, 'Famine and household coping strategies'.
41. See B M Popkin & A N Martinchik, 'Nutritional conditions of the Kyrgyz population, 1993', paper presented at the National Seminar on Poverty and Social Protection in the Kyrgyz Republic, September 1994, p 14.
42. The World Bank seminar held in Issykul, North Kyrgyzstan, in September 1994 served not only to report the findings of the multipurpose survey but also to stimulate discussion about a reshaping of social welfare policy.
43. Rahmato, 'Peasant survival strategies in Ethiopia', p 329.
44. Hyden, 'Responses from below'.
45. Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia.
46. Collectivisation got underway in the late 1920s and reached its peak between 1930 and 1932 (see Allworth, Central Asia, pp 266-308).
47. The sprouting of mosques throughout Kyrgyzstan reflects not only the ideological vacuum typical of many post-communist states but also the injection of funding from Muslim countries such as Iran, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
48. Informal discussions with foreign NGO representatives from France, the UK and the USA.
49. Currently there are 60 welfare-type non-governmental organisations in Kyrgyzstan. These are mainly located in the north and primarily at oblast and raion level. For further details of non-governmental organisations see B Pratt & M Sinclair, 'Poverty alleviation in Kyrgyzstan: community based development and the role of NGOS', mimeo, Oxford: INTRAC, 1994, pp 1-40.