The institutional foundations of democratic cooperation in Costa Rica

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 329-355

  Lehoucq, Fabrice Edouard ^a  

^a CHRISTOPHER NEWPORT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS; POLITICAL COMPETITION;

COSTA RICA;

EID: 0029956711     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022216x00013031     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. James L. Busey, 'The Presidents of Costa Rica', The Americas, vol. 18, no. 1 (1961).
2. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
3. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
4. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
5. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
6. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
7. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
8. I am echoing the claims made by Arturo Valenzuela and John Peeler that the choices made by politicians shaped the democratic trajectories of countries like Chile and Costa Rica. I build upon this observation by showing how the behaviour of politicians was decisively influenced by the incentives generated by prevailing institutional arrangements. See John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1984) and especially Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los origenes de la democracia: reflexiones teóricas sobre el caso de Chile', Estudios Públicos (Santiago de Chile), No. 13 (spring 1983). Works within the genre of the new institutionalisim include : Robert H. Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian Development in Kenya (Cambridge, 1989); Gary W. Cox, The Efficient Secret: The Cabinet and the Development of Political Parties in Victorian England (Cambridge, 1987) and Charles Stewart, III, Budget Reform Politics: The Design of the Appropriations Process in the House of Representatives (Cambridge, 1989). The most recent theoretical discussions of the new institutionalism are Jack Knight, Institutions and Social Conflict (Cambridge, 1992) and George Tsebelis, Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics (Berkeley, 1990).
9. Though, I must add, I do not examine how electoral laws and party systems generate dividied governments. Here, I focus upon the consequences of an omnipotent presidency on democratic stability. The most thorough discussion of the prior set of issues are: Mark P. Jones, Electoral Laws and the Survival of Presidential Democracies (Notre Dame, 1995); Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore, 1994) and Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies : Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge, 1992).
10. Though, I must add, I do not examine how electoral laws and party systems generate dividied governments. Here, I focus upon the consequences of an omnipotent presidency on democratic stability. The most thorough discussion of the prior set of issues are: Mark P. Jones, Electoral Laws and the Survival of Presidential Democracies (Notre Dame, 1995); Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore, 1994) and Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies : Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge, 1992).
11. Though, I must add, I do not examine how electoral laws and party systems generate dividied governments. Here, I focus upon the consequences of an omnipotent presidency on democratic stability. The most thorough discussion of the prior set of issues are: Mark P. Jones, Electoral Laws and the Survival of Presidential Democracies (Notre Dame, 1995); Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy (Baltimore, 1994) and Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies : Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge, 1992).
12. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
13. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
14. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
15. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
16. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
17. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
18. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
19. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
20. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
21. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
22. Perhaps the most influential version of this thesis remains that of Carlos Monge Alfaro, Historia de Costa Rica (San José, 1966). Other notable examples include: Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, Ensayos de la bistoria patria (San José, 1984); José Albertazzi Avendaño, 'Unos apuntes simples sobre la democracia costarricense', Don José Albertazzi y la democracia costarricense (San José, 1987 [originally published in 1940]); Eugenio Rodríguez Vega, Apuntes para una sociologia costarricense (San José, 1979 [originally published in 1953]); José Francisco Trejos, Origen y desarrollo de la democracia en Costa Rica (San José, 1939). Useful surveys include Chester J. Zelaya, 'Democracia con justicia social y libertad', in Chester J. Zelaya (ed.), ¿Democracia en Costa Rica? cinco opiniones polémicas (San José, 1983) as well as Marc Edelman and Joanne Kenen, 'La culture politique du Costa Rica ', Les Temps Modernes, No. 517-518 (August/September 1989). The principal English-language proponents of this explanation are James L. Busey, Notes on Costa Rican Democracy (Boulder, 1962); Charles D. Ameringer, Democracy in Costa Rica (New York, 1982); John A. Booth, 'Costa Rica: The Roots of Democratic Stability', in Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America (Boulder, 1989); Samuel Z. Stone, The Heritage of the Conquistadors (Lincoln, 1991).
23. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
24. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
25. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
26. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
27. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
28. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
29. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
30. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966). For a similar sort of study with a larger sample of cases, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, 1992). For Moorean interpretations of Central America, see Enrique Baloyra-Herp, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983); Lowell Gudmundson, 'Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America', in Evelyne Huber Stephens and John Stephens (eds.), Agrarian Structure and Political Power in the Period of Export Expansion (Pittsburgh, forthcoming) ; David Kauck, 'Agricultural Commercialization and State Development in Central America: The Political Economy of the Coffee Industry from 1838 to 1940', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1988; Jeffrey Paige, 'Coffee and Politics in Central America', in Richard Tardanico (ed.), Crisis in the Caribbean Basin (Beverly Hills, 1987); Héctor Pérez Brignoli, 'Crecimiento agroexportador y regímenes politicos en Centroamérica : un ensayo de Historia comparada', in Héctor Pérez Brignoli and Mario Samper (eds.), Tierra, café y sociedad: Ensayos sobre la Historia agraria centroamericana (San José, 1994); John Weeks, 'An Interpretation of the Central American Past', Latin American Research Review, vol. 21, no. 3 (1986).
31. Víctor Hugo Acuña Ortega, 'Patrones del conflicto social en la economía cafetalera costarricense (1900-1948)', Revista de Ciencias Sociales (San José), no. 31 (March 1986).
32. Lowell Gudmundson, ' Peasant, Farmer, Proletarian : Class Formation in a Smallholder Economy, 1850-1950', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 69, no. 2 (May 1989) and Mitchell A. Seligson, Peasants of Costa Rica and the Development of Agrarian Capitalism (Madison, 1980).
33. Lowell Gudmundson, ' Peasant, Farmer, Proletarian : Class Formation in a Smallholder Economy, 1850-1950', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 69, no. 2 (May 1989) and Mitchell A. Seligson, Peasants of Costa Rica and the Development of Agrarian Capitalism (Madison, 1980).
34. Víctor Hugo Acuña O. and Iván Molina Jiménez, Historia económica y social de Costa Rica (San José, 1991).
35. Claudio Vargas, El liberalismo, la Iglesia y el Estado en Costa Rica (San José, 1991).
36. See Philippe I. Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work : Divided Labor on a Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989); Aviva Chomsky, 'A Perfect Slavery:' West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, 1870-1950 (Baton Rouge, forthcoming) and Trevor Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, Color, and Culture among the West Indians in Costa Rica (Berkeley, 1993). On the relation betweem ethnicity and political instability, see: Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, 1985).
37. See Philippe I. Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work : Divided Labor on a Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989); Aviva Chomsky, 'A Perfect Slavery:' West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, 1870-1950 (Baton Rouge, forthcoming) and Trevor Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, Color, and Culture among the West Indians in Costa Rica (Berkeley, 1993). On the relation betweem ethnicity and political instability, see: Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, 1985).
38. See Philippe I. Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work : Divided Labor on a Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989); Aviva Chomsky, 'A Perfect Slavery:' West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, 1870-1950 (Baton Rouge, forthcoming) and Trevor Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, Color, and Culture among the West Indians in Costa Rica (Berkeley, 1993). On the relation betweem ethnicity and political instability, see: Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, 1985).
39. See Philippe I. Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work : Divided Labor on a Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989); Aviva Chomsky, 'A Perfect Slavery:' West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, 1870-1950 (Baton Rouge, forthcoming) and Trevor Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, Color, and Culture among the West Indians in Costa Rica (Berkeley, 1993). On the relation betweem ethnicity and political instability, see: Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, 1985).
40. John W. Gardner, 'The Costa Rican Junta of 1948-49', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., St John's University, 1971, pp. 54-5. Data on presidential succession during this period are from Fabrice Edouard Lehoucq, 'The Origins of Democracy in Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1992, pp. 63-70. Data on the period prior to 1882 are from Busey, 'The Presidents of Costa Rica'.
41. John W. Gardner, 'The Costa Rican Junta of 1948-49', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., St John's University, 1971, pp. 54-5. Data on presidential succession during this period are from Fabrice Edouard Lehoucq, 'The Origins of Democracy in Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1992, pp. 63-70. Data on the period prior to 1882 are from Busey, 'The Presidents of Costa Rica'.
42. John W. Gardner, 'The Costa Rican Junta of 1948-49', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., St John's University, 1971, pp. 54-5. Data on presidential succession during this period are from Fabrice Edouard Lehoucq, 'The Origins of Democracy in Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective', unpubl. Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1992, pp. 63-70. Data on the period prior to 1882 are from Busey, 'The Presidents of Costa Rica'.
43. Arturo Valenzuela and J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Los orígenes de la democracia'.
44. Carlos H. Waisman, Reversal of Development in Argentina: Postwar Counterrevolutionary Policies and their Structural Consequences (Princeton, 1987), pp. 94-126.
45. See Michael Hechter, Principles of Group Solidarity (Berkeley, 1987), esp. pp. 3-6 and Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 19-37.
46. See Michael Hechter, Principles of Group Solidarity (Berkeley, 1987), esp. pp. 3-6 and Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 19-37.
47. Edward N. Muller and Mitchell A. Seligson, 'Civic Culture and Democracy: The Question of Causal Relationships', American Political Science Review, vol. 88, no. 3 (September 1994).
48. See especially Tsebelis, Nested Games and Barbara Geddes, 'Uses and Limitations of Rational Choice', in Peter H. Smith (ed.), Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder, 1995). Two other analysts, whose work has influenced my own, use a similar set of assumptions to answer somewhat different questions. They are Barry Ames, Political Survival: Politicians and Public Policy in Latin America (Berkeley, 1987) and Barbara Geddes, Politician's Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America (Berkeley, 1994).
49. See especially Tsebelis, Nested Games and Barbara Geddes, 'Uses and Limitations of Rational Choice', in Peter H. Smith (ed.), Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder, 1995). Two other analysts, whose work has influenced my own, use a similar set of assumptions to answer somewhat different questions. They are Barry Ames, Political Survival: Politicians and Public Policy in Latin America (Berkeley, 1987) and Barbara Geddes, Politician's Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America (Berkeley, 1994).
50. See especially Tsebelis, Nested Games and Barbara Geddes, 'Uses and Limitations of Rational Choice', in Peter H. Smith (ed.), Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder, 1995). Two other analysts, whose work has influenced my own, use a similar set of assumptions to answer somewhat different questions. They are Barry Ames, Political Survival: Politicians and Public Policy in Latin America (Berkeley, 1987) and Barbara Geddes, Politician's Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America (Berkeley, 1994).
51. See especially Tsebelis, Nested Games and Barbara Geddes, 'Uses and Limitations of Rational Choice', in Peter H. Smith (ed.), Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis (Boulder, 1995). Two other analysts, whose work has influenced my own, use a similar set of assumptions to answer somewhat different questions. They are Barry Ames, Political Survival: Politicians and Public Policy in Latin America (Berkeley, 1987) and Barbara Geddes, Politician's Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America (Berkeley, 1994).
52. I refer to the unreformed version of the 1871 constitution unless I state otherwise. I rely upon the version of the 1871 constitution contained in Marco Tulio Zeledón, Digesto constitutional de Costa Rica (San José, 1946), pp. 207-24. It also is reprinted in Hernán G. Peralta, Las constituciones de Costa Rica (Madrid, 1962). The 1949 constitution is discussed below.
53. I refer to the unreformed version of the 1871 constitution unless I state otherwise. I rely upon the version of the 1871 constitution contained in Marco Tulio Zeledón, Digesto constitutional de Costa Rica (San José, 1946), pp. 207-24. It also is reprinted in Hernán G. Peralta, Las constituciones de Costa Rica (Madrid, 1962). The 1949 constitution is discussed below.
54. In lieu of popularly elected vice-presidents, legislative deputies selected three presidential designates during the first session of the new Congress. An amendment to the constitution in 1926 established double-ballot elections for the presidency: should no candidate receive an absolute majority of the popular vote, the old Congress on 1 March was to have convened a run-off election among the two candidates who attracted the most votes. In 1936, another constitutional reform decreed that a candidate needed to attract the largest plurality and only 40 per cent of the popular vote to have been declared president. In the event that no candidate should satisfy these requirements, a run-off election, announced by the old Congress on I March, would have been held among the two leading candidates during the first Sunday of the following April. The 1949 Constitution abolished the system of congressionally elected presidential designates and created the office of the vice-presidency. Since 1953, two vice-presidents have been elected along with the president at four-year intervals. In 1969, legislators enacted a constitutional amendment prohibiting an individual from ever being president for more than one four-year term. The only individuals exempted from this ban on re-election were those who had exercised the powers of the presidency before the 1949 constitution was amended to this effect.
55. Legislative deputies have been elected from one of seven districts whose boundaries correspond to those of Costa Rica's seven provinces. Between 1882 and 1893, individuals who attracted the largest pluralities of votes in each district became Congressmen. Provinces that sent two or fewer representatives to Congress required candidates to gain absolute majorities between 1893 and 1913. Districts that elected three or more Congressmen allocated seats through proportional representation during this period. Between 1913 and 1946, provinces-that sent two or fewer representatives to Congress required candidates to attract relative majorities of the vote. In those that sent three or more deputies to the legislature, a system of proportional representation was employed to distribute congressional seats. Since 1946, all deputies have been elected through the least remainders version of proportional representation in seven provincial electoral districts. Until 1948, congressional elections were held every two years for half of its members, each of whom served a four-year term in office. A constitutional prohibition against re-election for legislators only came into effect with the promulgation of the 1949 constitution. Since 1949, all members of the newly named Legislative Assembly have been elected to four-year-terms that they serve co-terminously with that of the president. Legislative deputies may run for re-election, but are constitutionally required to wait for a period of four years before running for office. Electoral laws and their reforms were initially printed in the daily government newspaper, La Gaceta: Diario Oficial, and subsequently published in La Colección de Leyes Y Decretos (San José, 1882-). Versions of electoral laws were also published as booklets; they will be cited below. For a juridical analysis of the current law, see Rubén Hernández Valle, Derecho electoral costaṙricense (San José, 1989).
56. Legislative deputies have been elected from one of seven districts whose boundaries correspond to those of Costa Rica's seven provinces. Between 1882 and 1893, individuals who attracted the largest pluralities of votes in each district became Congressmen. Provinces that sent two or fewer representatives to Congress required candidates to gain absolute majorities between 1893 and 1913. Districts that elected three or more Congressmen allocated seats through proportional representation during this period. Between 1913 and 1946, provinces-that sent two or fewer representatives to Congress required candidates to attract relative majorities of the vote. In those that sent three or more deputies to the legislature, a system of proportional representation was employed to distribute congressional seats. Since 1946, all deputies have been elected through the least remainders version of proportional representation in seven provincial electoral districts. Until 1948, congressional elections were held every two years for half of its members, each of whom served a four-year term in office. A constitutional prohibition against re-election for legislators only came into effect with the promulgation of the 1949 constitution. Since 1949, all members of the newly named Legislative Assembly have been elected to four-year-terms that they serve co-terminously with that of the president. Legislative deputies may run for re-election, but are constitutionally required to wait for a period of four years before running for office. Electoral laws and their reforms were initially printed in the daily government newspaper, La Gaceta: Diario Oficial, and subsequently published in La Colección de Leyes Y Decretos (San José, 1882-). Versions of electoral laws were also published as booklets; they will be cited below. For a juridical analysis of the current law, see Rubén Hernández Valle, Derecho electoral costaṙricense (San José, 1989).
57. Legislative deputies have been elected from one of seven districts whose boundaries correspond to those of Costa Rica's seven provinces. Between 1882 and 1893, individuals who attracted the largest pluralities of votes in each district became Congressmen. Provinces that sent two or fewer representatives to Congress required candidates to gain absolute majorities between 1893 and 1913. Districts that elected three or more Congressmen allocated seats through proportional representation during this period. Between 1913 and 1946, provinces-that sent two or fewer representatives to Congress required candidates to attract relative majorities of the vote. In those that sent three or more deputies to the legislature, a system of proportional representation was employed to distribute congressional seats. Since 1946, all deputies have been elected through the least remainders version of proportional representation in seven provincial electoral districts. Until 1948, congressional elections were held every two years for half of its members, each of whom served a four-year term in office. A constitutional prohibition against re-election for legislators only came into effect with the promulgation of the 1949 constitution. Since 1949, all members of the newly named Legislative Assembly have been elected to four-year-terms that they serve co-terminously with that of the president. Legislative deputies may run for re-election, but are constitutionally required to wait for a period of four years before running for office. Electoral laws and their reforms were initially printed in the daily government newspaper, La Gaceta: Diario Oficial, and subsequently published in La Colección de Leyes Y Decretos (San José, 1882-). Versions of electoral laws were also published as booklets; they will be cited below. For a juridical analysis of the current law, see Rubén Hernández Valle, Derecho electoral costaṙricense (San José, 1989).
58. Orlando Salazar Mora, El apogeo de la república liberal en Costa Rica (1870-1914) (San José, 1990), pp. 211-22.
59. Octavio Quesada, Sumaria por sedición: noviembre, diciembre de 1906 (San José, 1906).
60. Lehoucq, 'The Origins of Democracy in Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective', pp. 88-92. Unless otherwise stated, data on the partisan affiliation of deputies are from Table 1.
61. Orlando Salazar Mora, 'La Comisión Permanente y la suspension del orden constitucional', Revista de Ciencias jurídicas (San José, Costa Rica), No. 44 (May-August 1981), pp. 45-7.
62. A constitutional reform in 1913 eliminated indirect elections for all public officials. The 1949 National Constituent Assembly made the franchise universal to include all male and female Costa Ricans above the age of twenty. A constitutional amendment in 1971 lowered the voting age to eighteen.
63. The electoral law then in effect was enacted in the early 1890S. See: 'Ley de elecciones (11 Nov. 1893)', Decretos relativos a elecciones: instrucciones para practicar las de segundo grado, conforme al sistema de vota proportional numérico y división territorial electoral (San José, 1893). Discussions of its legal provisions include: Nelson Chacón Pacheco, Reseña de nuestras leyes electorales (San José, 1975) and Orlando Salazar Mora, 'El sistemas electoral costarricense: un análisis del período 1889-1919', Avances de Investigación, No. 20, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986).
64. The electoral law then in effect was enacted in the early 1890S. See: 'Ley de elecciones (11 Nov. 1893)', Decretos relativos a elecciones: instrucciones para practicar las de segundo grado, conforme al sistema de vota proportional numérico y división territorial electoral (San
65. The electoral law then in effect was enacted in the early 1890S. See: 'Ley de elecciones (11 Nov. 1893)', Decretos relativos a elecciones: instrucciones para practicar las de segundo grado, conforme al sistema de vota proportional numérico y división territorial electoral (San José, 1893). Discussions of its legal provisions include: Nelson Chacón Pacheco, Reseña de nuestras leyes electorales (San José, 1975) and Orlando Salazar Mora, 'El sistemas electoral costarricense: un análisis del período 1889-1919', Avances de Investigación, No. 20, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986).
66. They were 'Ley No. 28 (1 Dec. 1908)', 'Ley No. 30 (22 May 1909)', 'Ley No. 73 (26 June 1909)'. All reforms of the 1893 Law of Elections in effect for the 1910 general elections are included in Compilación sobre Leyes de Elecciones (June 1909) (San José, 1909).
67. 'Proyecto (June 1910)', La Gaceta, No. 137 (8 July 1910), p. 28.
68. Orlando Salazar Mora, Máxima Fernández (San José, 1975). Unless otherwise stated, data on the partisan affiliation of deputies are from Table 1.
69. Constitutional Congress, Ordinary Session No. 22 (4 June 1912), article 5, La Gaceta, No. 131 (13 June 1912), p. 713.
70. Constitutional Congress, Ordinary Sessions No. 11(15 May 1913), article 6, La Gaceta, No. 114 (21 May 1913), p. 605. These reforms were published as 'Decreto no. 7 (17 May 1913)', La Gaceta, No. 128 (7 June 1913), pp. 673-4.
71. Constitutional Congress, Ordinary Sessions No. 11(15 May 1913), article 6, La Gaceta, No. 114 (21 May 1913), p. 605. These reforms were published as 'Decreto no. 7 (17 May 1913)', La Gaceta, No. 128 (7 June 1913), pp. 673-4.
72. 'Dictamen de la Comisión de Legislación (20 June 1913)', La Gaceta, No. 146 (28 June 1913), PP. 773-4.
73. 'Ley de elecciones (7 August 1913)', Colección de Leyesj Decretos (San José, 1913).
74. Victoria Ramírez A., Jorge Volio y la revolución viviente (San José, 1989), pp. 112-46; Marina Volio K., Jorge Volio Y el Partido Reformista (San José, 1973), pp. 174-230. The latter is a daughter of the late Jorge Volio Jiménez, who was the leader of the Reformist Party.
75. Victoria Ramírez A., Jorge Volio y la revolución viviente (San José, 1989), pp. 112-46; Marina Volio K., Jorge Volio Y el Partido Reformista (San José, 1973), pp. 174-230. The latter is a daughter of the late Jorge Volio Jiménez, who was the leader of the Reformist Party.
76. 'Proyecto (16 June 1924)', La Gaceta, No. 142 (29 June 1924).
77. 'Importante carta del Presidente de la República acerca de la reforma de la Ley Electoral', Diario de Costa Rica, No. 1592 (29 Oct. 1924), p. 1.
78. 'El partido agrícola se abstiene de ocuparse en las próximas elecciones de diputados', La Tribuna (3 Feb. 1925), p. 1.
79. 'Se aprobóel dictamen sobre les objeciones del Ejecutivo a la Ley Electoral', Diario de Costa Rica, No. 1804 (16 July 1925), p. 6. Ley de Elecciones (16 July 1925) (San José, 1926). This version contains all subsequent reforms made of the 1925 law. For a description of this law, see Orlando Salazar Mora, 'La Ley electoral de 1925', Avances de Investigatión, No. 21, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986). An analysis of one of its key provisions is Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Registro Civil y el proceso electoral en Costa Rica', Estudios CIAPA (San José, Costa Rica), No. 2-3 (1980). For the 1927 law, see: Héctor Beeche (ed.), Ley de elecciones (26 Sept. 1927), (San José, 1931).
80. 'Se aprobóel dictamen sobre les objeciones del Ejecutivo a la Ley Electoral', Diario de Costa Rica, No. 1804 (16 July 1925), p. 6. Ley de Elecciones (16 July 1925) (San José, 1926). This version contains all subsequent reforms made of the 1925 law. For a description of this law, see Orlando Salazar Mora, 'La Ley electoral de 1925', Avances de Investigatión, No. 21, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986). An analysis of one of its key provisions is Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Registro Civil y el proceso electoral en Costa Rica', Estudios CIAPA (San José, Costa Rica), No. 2-3 (1980). For the 1927 law, see: Héctor Beeche (ed.), Ley de elecciones (26 Sept. 1927), (San José, 1931).
81. 'Se aprobóel dictamen sobre les objeciones del Ejecutivo a la Ley Electoral', Diario de Costa Rica, No. 1804 (16 July 1925), p. 6. Ley de Elecciones (16 July 1925) (San José, 1926). This version contains all subsequent reforms made of the 1925 law. For a description of this law, see Orlando Salazar Mora, 'La Ley electoral de 1925', Avances de Investigatión, No. 21, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986). An analysis of one of its key provisions is Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Registro Civil y el proceso electoral en Costa Rica', Estudios CIAPA (San José, Costa Rica), No. 2-3 (1980). For the 1927 law, see: Héctor Beeche (ed.), Ley de elecciones (26 Sept. 1927), (San José, 1931).
82. 'Se aprobóel dictamen sobre les objeciones del Ejecutivo a la Ley Electoral', Diario de Costa Rica, No. 1804 (16 July 1925), p. 6. Ley de Elecciones (16 July 1925) (San José, 1926). This version contains all subsequent reforms made of the 1925 law. For a description of this law, see Orlando Salazar Mora, 'La Ley electoral de 1925', Avances de Investigatión, No. 21, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986). An analysis of one of its key provisions is Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Registro Civil y el proceso electoral en Costa Rica', Estudios CIAPA (San José, Costa Rica), No. 2-3 (1980). For the 1927 law, see: Héctor Beeche (ed.), Ley de elecciones (26 Sept. 1927), (San José, 1931).
83. 'Se aprobóel dictamen sobre les objeciones del Ejecutivo a la Ley Electoral', Diario de Costa Rica, No. 1804 (16 July 1925), p. 6. Ley de Elecciones (16 July 1925) (San José, 1926). This version contains all subsequent reforms made of the 1925 law. For a description of this law, see Orlando Salazar Mora, 'La Ley electoral de 1925', Avances de Investigatión, No. 21, Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad de Costa Rica (San José, 1986). An analysis of one of its key provisions is Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Registro Civil y el proceso electoral en Costa Rica', Estudios CIAPA (San José, Costa Rica), No. 2-3 (1980). For the 1927 law, see: Héctor Beeche (ed.), Ley de elecciones (26 Sept. 1927), (San José, 1931).
84. Lehoucq, 'The Origins of Democracy in Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective', pp. 181, 318-19.
85. Ibid. pp. 187-94.
86. A debate exists regarding the origins of the 1948 civil war. Manuel Rojas Bolaños, Lucha social y guerra civil en Costa Rica, 1940-1948 (San José, 1979) and Jacobo Schifter, La fase oculta de la guerra civil (San José, 1979) argue that it was the product of class conflict and economic crises. Lehoucq suggests that the 1948 civil war was the outcome of a series of disputes between parties vying for control of the state (see his ' Class Conflict, Political Crisis and the Breakdown of Democratic Practices in Costa Rica : Reassessing the Origins of the 1948 Civil War', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 23, no. 1 [Feb. 1991]). Whether the polarisation preceding the civil war was economic or political in inspiration does not matter for the discussion presented here. That it occurred and revolved around electoral guarantees for the opposition, however, is relevant.
87. A debate exists regarding the origins of the 1948 civil war. Manuel Rojas Bolaños, Lucha social y guerra civil en Costa Rica, 1940-1948 (San José, 1979) and Jacobo Schifter, La fase oculta de la guerra civil (San José, 1979) argue that it was the product of class conflict and economic crises. Lehoucq suggests that the 1948 civil war was the outcome of a series of disputes between parties vying for control of the state (see his ' Class Conflict, Political Crisis and the Breakdown of Democratic Practices in Costa Rica : Reassessing the Origins of the 1948 Civil War', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 23, no. 1 [Feb. 1991]). Whether the polarisation preceding the civil war was economic or political in inspiration does not matter for the discussion presented here. That it occurred and revolved around electoral guarantees for the opposition, however, is relevant.
88. A debate exists regarding the origins of the 1948 civil war. Manuel Rojas Bolaños, Lucha social y guerra civil en Costa Rica, 1940-1948 (San José, 1979) and Jacobo Schifter, La fase oculta de la guerra civil (San José, 1979) argue that it was the product of class conflict and economic crises. Lehoucq suggests that the 1948 civil war was the outcome of a series of disputes between parties vying for control of the state (see his ' Class Conflict, Political Crisis and the Breakdown of Democratic Practices in Costa Rica : Reassessing the Origins of the 1948 Civil War', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 23, no. 1 [Feb. 1991]). Whether the polarisation preceding the civil war was economic or political in inspiration does not matter for the discussion presented here. That it occurred and revolved around electoral guarantees for the opposition, however, is relevant.
89. This is the core conclusion of Lehoucq, ' Institutional Change and Political Conflict : Evaluating Alternative Explanations of Electoral Reform in Costa Rica', Electoral Studies, vol. 14, no. 1(March 1995). With Iván Molina Jiménez, I am currently writing a manuscript, thanks to the generous support of the U.S. National Endowment for the Humanities, tentatively entitled, fraud, Electoral Reform and Democracy: Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective, which will explore in much more detail the issues analysed in this section.
90. This is the core conclusion of Lehoucq, ' Institutional Change and Political Conflict : Evaluating Alternative Explanations of Electoral Reform in Costa Rica', Electoral Studies, vol. 14, no. 1(March 1995). With Iván Molina Jiménez, I am currently writing a manuscript, thanks to the generous support of the U.S. National Endowment for the Humanities, tentatively entitled, fraud, Electoral Reform and Democracy: Costa Rica in Comparative Perspective, which will explore in much more detail the issues analysed in this section.
91. See Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, La constitución de 1949: antecedentes y proyecciones (San José, 1973); Mario Alberto Jiménez, Historia constitutional de Costa Rica (San José, 1979), pp. 154-69. A discussion of each of the assembly debates is: Rubén Hernández Póveda, Desde la barra: como se discutió y emitió la Constitución Politica de 1949 (San José, 1991 [originally published in 1953]). Hernández Póveda covered Assembly sessions as a reporter for the evening newspaper, La prensa libre.
92. See Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, La constitución de 1949: antecedentes y proyecciones (San José, 1973); Mario Alberto Jiménez, Historia constitutional de Costa Rica (San José, 1979), pp. 154-69. A discussion of each of the assembly debates is: Rubén Hernández Póveda, Desde la barra: como se discutió y emitió la Constitución Politica de 1949 (San José, 1991 [originally published in 1953]). Hernández Póveda covered Assembly sessions as a reporter for the evening newspaper, La prensa libre.
93. See Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, La constitución de 1949: antecedentes y proyecciones (San José, 1973); Mario Alberto Jiménez, Historia constitutional de Costa Rica (San José, 1979), pp. 154-69. A discussion of each of the assembly debates is: Rubén Hernández Póveda, Desde la barra: como se discutió y emitió la Constitución Politica de 1949 (San José, 1991 [originally published in 1953]). Hernández Póveda covered Assembly sessions as a reporter for the evening newspaper, La prensa libre.
94. See Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli, La constitución de 1949: antecedentes y proyecciones (San José, 1973); Mario Alberto Jiménez, Historia constitutional de Costa Rica (San José, 1979), pp. 154-69. A discussion of each of the assembly debates is: Rubén Hernández Póveda, Desde la barra: como se discutió y emitió la Constitución Politica de 1949 (San José, 1991 [originally published in 1953]). Hernández Póveda covered Assembly sessions as a reporter for the evening newspaper, La prensa libre.
95. Gardner, 'The Costa Rican Junta of 1948-9', pp. 168-210.
96. See Wilburg Jiménez Castro, Génesis del gobierno de Costa Rica, 1821-1981, vol. 1 (San José, 1986); Rose Marie Karpinski de Murillo, et al., Reflexiones sobre el Poder Legislativo costarricense (San José, 1989); Hugo Alfonso Muñoz Quesada, La Asamblea Legislativa en Costa Rica (San José, 1977) and Magda Inés Rojas, El Poder Ejecutivo en Costa Rica (San José, 1980).
97. See Wilburg Jiménez Castro, Génesis del gobierno de Costa Rica, 1821-1981, vol. 1 (San José, 1986); Rose Marie Karpinski de Murillo, et al., Reflexiones sobre el Poder Legislativo costarricense (San José, 1989); Hugo Alfonso Muñoz Quesada, La Asamblea Legislativa en Costa Rica (San José, 1977) and Magda Inés Rojas, El Poder Ejecutivo en Costa Rica (San José, 1980).
98. See Wilburg Jiménez Castro, Génesis del gobierno de Costa Rica, 1821-1981, vol. 1 (San José, 1986); Rose Marie Karpinski de Murillo, et al., Reflexiones sobre el Poder Legislativo costarricense (San José, 1989); Hugo Alfonso Muñoz Quesada, La Asamblea Legislativa en Costa Rica (San José, 1977) and Magda Inés Rojas, El Poder Ejecutivo en Costa Rica (San José, 1980).
99. See Wilburg Jiménez Castro, Génesis del gobierno de Costa Rica, 1821-1981, vol. 1 (San José, 1986); Rose Marie Karpinski de Murillo, et al., Reflexiones sobre el Poder Legislativo costarricense (San José, 1989); Hugo Alfonso Muñoz Quesada, La Asamblea Legislativa en Costa Rica (San José, 1977) and Magda Inés Rojas, El Poder Ejecutivo en Costa Rica (San José, 1980).
100. This pivotal institution has remained little studied. Existing essays are : Mauro Murillo, 'El Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones', in Carlos José Gutiérrez (ed.), Derecbo constitucional costarricense (San José, 1983) and Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones y el Registro Civil de Costa Rica ', Cuadernos de CAPEL, No. 18 (San José, 1987).
101. This pivotal institution has remained little studied. Existing essays are : Mauro Murillo, 'El Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones', in Carlos José Gutiérrez (ed.), Derecbo constitucional costarricense (San José, 1983) and Rafael Villegas Antillón, 'El Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones y el Registro Civil de Costa Rica ', Cuadernos de CAPEL, No. 18 (San José, 1987).
102. Fine studies of these problems are Brian Loveman, The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America (Pittsburgh, 1994) and Diego Valadés, La dictadura constitucional en América Latino (México, D.F., 1974).
103. Fine studies of these problems are Brian Loveman, The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America (Pittsburgh, 1994) and Diego Valadés, La dictadura constitucional en América Latino (México, D.F., 1974).
104. Ann Louise Potter, 'The Failure of Democracy in Argentina, 1916-1930: An Institutional Perspective', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 13, no. 1 (1981) and Natalio R. Botana, El orden conservador: la política argentina entre 1880-1916 (Buenos Aires, 1979). Also, see N. Guillermo Molinelli, Presidentes y congresos en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1991).
105. Ann Louise Potter, 'The Failure of Democracy in Argentina, 1916-1930: An Institutional Perspective', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 13, no. 1 (1981) and Natalio R. Botana, El orden conservador: la política argentina entre 1880-1916 (Buenos Aires, 1979). Also, see N. Guillermo Molinelli, Presidentes y congresos en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1991).
106. Ann Louise Potter, 'The Failure of Democracy in Argentina, 1916-1930: An Institutional Perspective', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 13, no. 1 (1981) and Natalio R. Botana, El orden conservador: la política argentina entre 1880-1916 (Buenos Aires, 1979). Also, see N. Guillermo Molinelli, Presidentes y congresos en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1991).
107. Julio Heise González, El període parlamentario, 1861-1925: democracia y gobierno representativo en el período parlamentario (Santiago, 1982) and J. Samuel Valenzuela, Democratizatión vía reforma: la expansión del sufragio en Chile (Buenos Aires, 1985).
108. Julio Heise González, El període parlamentario, 1861-1925: democracia y gobierno representativo en el período parlamentario (Santiago, 1982) and J. Samuel Valenzuela, Democratizatión vía reforma: la expansión del sufragio en Chile (Buenos Aires, 1985).
109. Rolando Franco, Democracia 'a la uruguaya': análisis electoral, 1925-1985 (Montevideo, 1984); Héctor Gros Espiell, La Corte Electoral del Uruguay (San José, 1990); Philip Taylor, Government and Politics of Uruguay (New Orleans, 1960).
110. Rolando Franco, Democracia 'a la uruguaya': análisis electoral, 1925-1985 (Montevideo, 1984); Héctor Gros Espiell, La Corte Electoral del Uruguay (San José, 1990); Philip Taylor, Government and Politics of Uruguay (New Orleans, 1960).
111. Rolando Franco, Democracia 'a la uruguaya': análisis electoral, 1925-1985 (Montevideo, 1984); Héctor Gros Espiell, La Corte Electoral del Uruguay (San José, 1990); Philip Taylor, Government and Politics of Uruguay (New Orleans, 1960).
112. An analysis of the impact of these cleavages on Chilean politics is Timothy R. Scully, Rethinking the Center: Party Politics in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Chile (Stanford, 1992). An analysis of Chilean presidentialism is Arturo Valenzuela, 'Political Parties and the Failure of Presidentialism in Chile : A Proposal for a Parliamentary Form of Government', in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy.
113. An analysis of the impact of these cleavages on Chilean politics is Timothy R. Scully, Rethinking the Center: Party Politics in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Chile (Stanford, 1992). An analysis of Chilean presidentialism is Arturo Valenzuela, 'Political Parties and the Failure of Presidentialism in Chile : A Proposal for a Parliamentary Form of Government', in Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy.
114. The most prominent sociological study is: Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy. Also, see Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton, 1991).
115. The most prominent sociological study is: Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy. Also, see Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America (Princeton, 1991).