Regional cooperation and southern African development

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 99-117

  Weeks, John ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL TRADE; DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY; ECONOMIC INTEGRATION; REGIONAL COOPERATION;

AFRICA, (SOUTHERN);

EID: 0029950476     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079608708480     Document Type: Article

References (67)

1. See, inter alia, World Bank, Adjustment in Africa (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994).
2. K. Muir-Leresche and A. Valdes, 'Introduction and Overview', Food Policy, 18, 4 (1993).
3. V. Jamal and J. Weeks, Africa Misunderstood: Whatever Happened to the Rural-Urban Gap? (London, Macmillan, 1993).
4. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Washington, World Bank, 1989).
5. I. Serageldin, Beyond Crisis Management: The World Bank's Comprehensive Program for Promoting Sustained Growth with Equity in Africa (Washington, World Bank, 1988).
6. World Bank and United Nations Development Programme, Africa's Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s (Washington, World Bank, 1989); World Bank, Adjustment in Africa.
7. World Bank and United Nations Development Programme, Africa's Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s (Washington, World Bank, 1989); World Bank, Adjustment in Africa.
8. For example B. Balassa, Incentive Policies and Agricultural Performance in sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, World Bank, WPA 77, 1988); World Bank, 'Report on Adjustment Lending II', (Convener: V. Corbo), (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department, 1990); World Bank, 'Report on Adjustment Lending III: Mobilization of Public and Private Resources for Growth', (Convener: S. Webb), (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department, 1992).
9. For example B. Balassa, Incentive Policies and Agricultural Performance in sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, World Bank, WPA 77, 1988); World Bank, 'Report on Adjustment Lending II', (Convener: V. Corbo), (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department, 1990); World Bank, 'Report on Adjustment Lending III: Mobilization of Public and Private Resources for Growth', (Convener: S. Webb), (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department, 1992).
10. For example B. Balassa, Incentive Policies and Agricultural Performance in sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, World Bank, WPA 77, 1988); World Bank, 'Report on Adjustment Lending II', (Convener: V. Corbo), (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department, 1990); World Bank, 'Report on Adjustment Lending III: Mobilization of Public and Private Resources for Growth', (Convener: S. Webb), (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department, 1992).
11. For example D. Woodward, Debt, Adjustment and Poverty in Developing Countries, Volume I: National and International Dimensions of Debt and Adjustment in Developing Countries (London, Pinter, 1992); P. Mosley and J. Weeks, 'Has Recovery Begun? "Africa's Adjustment in the 1980s" Revisited', World Development, 21, 10 (October 1993); and P. Mosley, T. Subasatand J. Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa', World Development 22, 9 (October 1995).
12. For example D. Woodward, Debt, Adjustment and Poverty in Developing Countries, Volume I: National and International Dimensions of Debt and Adjustment in Developing Countries (London, Pinter, 1992); P. Mosley and J. Weeks, 'Has Recovery Begun? "Africa's Adjustment in the 1980s" Revisited', World Development, 21, 10 (October 1993); and P. Mosley, T. Subasatand J. Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa', World Development 22, 9 (October 1995).
13. For example D. Woodward, Debt, Adjustment and Poverty in Developing Countries, Volume I: National and International Dimensions of Debt and Adjustment in Developing Countries (London, Pinter, 1992); P. Mosley and J. Weeks, 'Has Recovery Begun? "Africa's Adjustment in the 1980s" Revisited', World Development, 21, 10 (October 1993); and P. Mosley, T. Subasatand J. Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa', World Development 22, 9 (October 1995).
14. J. Williamson 'What Washington Means by Policy Reform', in J. Williamson (ed.), Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened? (Washington, Institute for International Economics, 1990). The outstanding exception is the government of Japan, which in 1995 was on the verge of a public break with neo-liberal consensus on trade liberalisation and deregulation as the keys to development strategy. For the most part the official Japanese criticism focused on the World Bank interpretation of East Asian countries as free-market, orthodox adjustment success stories. See World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993). For an explicit criticism of structural adjustment as applied to the sub-Saharan region, see T. Yanagihara, 'The Role of Structural Adjustment Policy and Remaining Tasks - In Search of a New Approach to Economic Development', (Tokyo, Economic Planning Agency, 6th Economic Cooperation Symposium Keynote Report, 1995).
15. J. Williamson 'What Washington Means by Policy Reform', in J. Williamson (ed.), Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened? (Washington, Institute for International Economics, 1990). The outstanding exception is the government of Japan, which in 1995 was on the verge of a public break with neo-liberal consensus on trade liberalisation and deregulation as the keys to development strategy. For the most part the official Japanese criticism focused on the World Bank interpretation of East Asian countries as free-market, orthodox adjustment success stories. See World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993). For an explicit criticism of structural adjustment as applied to the sub-Saharan region, see T. Yanagihara, 'The Role of Structural Adjustment Policy and Remaining Tasks - In Search of a New Approach to Economic Development', (Tokyo, Economic Planning Agency, 6th Economic Cooperation Symposium Keynote Report, 1995).
16. J. Williamson 'What Washington Means by Policy Reform', in J. Williamson (ed.), Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened? (Washington, Institute for International Economics, 1990). The outstanding exception is the government of Japan, which in 1995 was on the verge of a public break with neo-liberal consensus on trade liberalisation and deregulation as the keys to development strategy. For the most part the official Japanese criticism focused on the World Bank interpretation of East Asian countries as free-market, orthodox adjustment success stories. See World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993). For an explicit criticism of structural adjustment as applied to the sub-Saharan region, see T. Yanagihara, 'The Role of Structural Adjustment Policy and Remaining Tasks - In Search of a New Approach to Economic Development', (Tokyo, Economic Planning Agency, 6th Economic Cooperation Symposium Keynote Report, 1995).
17. J. Weeks, 'Fallacies of Competition: Myths and Maladjustment in the Third World,' Inaugural Lecture, School of Oriental and African Studies (London, SOAS, 1994).
18. J. Epstein, 'Old Wine in New Bottles', in J. Weeks (ed.), Debt Disaster? (New York, New York University Press, 1989).
19. Epstein, 'Old Wine in New Bottles', p. 140. Epstein is the former vice-president of the Inter-American Development Bank.
20. There have been modelling exercises by World Bank staff, for example I. Elbadwi, World Bank Adjustment Lending and Economic Performance, (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department Working Paper Number 1001, 1992) and I. Elbadwi, D. Ghura and G. Uwujaren, World Bank Lending and Economic Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1980s, (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department Working Paper No. 1000, 1992) but these have not been applied directly to structural adjustment loans of particular countries.
21. There have been modelling exercises by World Bank staff, for example I. Elbadwi, World Bank Adjustment Lending and Economic Performance, (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department Working Paper Number 1001, 1992) and I. Elbadwi, D. Ghura and G. Uwujaren, World Bank Lending and Economic Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1980s, (Washington, World Bank, Country Economics Department Working Paper No. 1000, 1992) but these have not been applied directly to structural adjustment loans of particular countries.
22. This conclusion applies to the most recent World Bank report on the sub-Saharan region, Adjustment in Africa, as is shown in Mosley, Subasat and Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa'.
23. Perhaps the best general review of the evidence is D. Woodward, Debt, Adjustment and Poverty, though it only treats World Bank and IMF studies. The most technically sophisticated work by World Bank staff are Elbadwi, World Bank Adjustment Lending and Elbadwi, Ghura and Uwujaren, World Bank Lending and Economic Performance. Their conclusions are suggested by the original title of the former study: 'Why World Bank Programs have not been Successful in Sub-Saharan Africa'.
24. Perhaps the best general review of the evidence is D. Woodward, Debt, Adjustment and Poverty, though it only treats World Bank and IMF studies. The most technically sophisticated work by World Bank staff are Elbadwi, World Bank Adjustment Lending and Elbadwi, Ghura and Uwujaren, World Bank Lending and Economic Performance. Their conclusions are suggested by the original title of the former study: 'Why World Bank Programs have not been Successful in Sub-Saharan Africa'.
25. Perhaps the best general review of the evidence is D. Woodward, Debt, Adjustment and Poverty, though it only treats World Bank and IMF studies. The most technically sophisticated work by World Bank staff are Elbadwi, World Bank Adjustment Lending and Elbadwi, Ghura and Uwujaren, World Bank Lending and Economic Performance. Their conclusions are suggested by the original title of the former study: 'Why World Bank Programs have not been Successful in Sub-Saharan Africa'.
26. World Bank Sub-Saharan Africa from Crisis to Sustainable Growth; Mosley and Weeks 'Has Recovery Begun?'.
27. World Bank Sub-Saharan Africa from Crisis to Sustainable Growth; Mosley and Weeks 'Has Recovery Begun?'.
28. J. Weeks, 'Macroeconomic Policies for Employment Generation: Africa South of the Sahara,' Paper prepared under the ILO/UNDP project 'Economic Policy and Employment', Paper No. 5 (Geneva, ILO, 1994).
29. Mosley, Subasat and Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa.'.
30. World Bank, 'Adjustment in Africa'.
31. T. Yanagihara, 'The Role of Structural Adjustment Policy'.
32. World Bank, Global Economic Prospects and the Developing Countries 1995 (Washington, World Bank, 1995), p. 21.
33. World Bank, 'Global Economic Prospects', p. 21. Dubbed the 'Michaely Index', for each commodity the measure subtracts the share of that commodity in the exports of one country from the share of the commodity in the imports of another, then sums the absolute values across all commodities. Discussing the problems with this measure lies beyond the scope of this article.
34. F. Foroutan, Regional Integration in Sub-Saharan Africa: Experience and Prospects. (Policy Research Working Papers: Trade Policy, WPS 992, 1992), p. 3.
35. World Bank, European Commission and African Development Bank, Regional Integration and Cooperation in Africa: Cross-Border-Initiative. Eastern and Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean (Addis Ababa, African Development Bank, 1995).
36. A. Rajaram and M. Carvalho, Implementing the Cross-Border Initiative in East Africa (Washington, World Bank, Eastern Africa Department, 1994) p. 6.
37. African Development Bank, Economic Integration in Southern Africa (Oxford, ADB, 1994).
38. P. Takirambudde, 'Rethinking Regional Integration Structures and Strategies in Eastern and Southern Africa', Africa Insight (1993).
39. As well as the obvious mineral examples, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar produce about 45 percent of internationally traded sisal, and Malawi and Zimbabwe produce 15 percent of traded raw tobacco. See Food and Agricultural Organisation, Draft Framework for a Common African Agricultural Programme (Rome, FAO, 1993), World Bank African Development Indicators (Washington, World Bank, 1992).
40. As well as the obvious mineral examples, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar produce about 45 percent of internationally traded sisal, and Malawi and Zimbabwe produce 15 percent of traded raw tobacco. See Food and Agricultural Organisation, Draft Framework for a Common African Agricultural Programme (Rome, FAO, 1993), World Bank African Development Indicators (Washington, World Bank, 1992).
41. J. Weeks and T. Subasat, The Potential for Agricultural Trade among Eastern and Southern African Countries: A Statistical Analysis (London, Centre for Development Studies, SOAS, 1995).
42. U. Koester, 'Regional Cooperation to Improve Food Security in Southern and Eastern African Countries', (Washington, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report 53, 1986); U. Koester, 'Policies for Promoting Regional Agricultural Trade', Food Policy, 18, 4 (1993).
43. U. Koester, 'Regional Cooperation to Improve Food Security in Southern and Eastern African Countries', (Washington, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report 53, 1986); U. Koester, 'Policies for Promoting Regional Agricultural Trade', Food Policy, 18, 4 (1993).
44. Japanese International Development Agency, Regional Study for Development Assistance to Southern Africa (Tokyo, JIDA, 1994), pp. 15-18.
45. Koester 'Regional Cooperation to Improve Food Security', and Koester 'Policies for Promoting Regional Agricultural Trade'.
46. Koester 'Regional Cooperation to Improve Food Security', and Koester 'Policies for Promoting Regional Agricultural Trade'.
47. African Development Bank, Economic Integration in Southern Africa.
48. World Bank, African Development Indicators.
49. Takirambudde, 'Rethinking Regional Integration'.
50. V. Jamal, 'Getting the Crisis Right', International Labour Review, 127, 6 (1988); W. Jaeger, 'The Causes of Africa's Food Crisis', World Development, 20, 11 (1992).
51. V. Jamal, 'Getting the Crisis Right', International Labour Review, 127, 6 (1988); W. Jaeger, 'The Causes of Africa's Food Crisis', World Development, 20, 11 (1992).
52. African Development Bank, Economic Integration in Southern Africa, Vol. 3, p. 85.
53. Koester, 'Policies for Promoting Regional Agricultural Trade', p. 355.
54. African Development Bank, Economic Integration in Southern Africa, Vol. 3, p. 83.
55. 'Consumption' includes final and intermediate demand, but not inventory accumulation.
56. It can be noted that there are seven pairs for which both consumption and production patterns are not significantly different. Three of the seven involve the members of the former federation of central Africa, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
57. Koester 'Regional Cooperation to Improve Food Security'.
58. See R. Hay and M. Rukuni, 'SADCC Food Security Strategies: Evolution and Role', World Development, 16, 9 (1988), p. 1015. They write: '[Climate similarity] reduces the opportunities for countries which hold surpluses in any one year to supply food deficit neighbouring countries. The extent to which regional cooperation would aid supply stability in individual countries is therefore limited by the synchronous nature of year on year fluctuations in most SADCC (later, SADC] countries'.
59. See M. Lipton, 'Regional Trade and Food Security in Southern Africa,' in C. Bryant (ed.), Poverty, Policy and Food Security in Southern Africa (London, Mansell Publishing, 1988), p. 97. Referring to the SADC countries, he asserts 'the region-wide droughts of 1983-84, which turned Zimbabwe and even [South Africa] into net grain importers, point up the high covariance among regional sources of grain supply'.
60. For all the tables the source is the FAO data base, AGROSTAT (Rome, FAO, 1994), in some cases augmented by national publications.
61. The number of countries in each table is determined either by the availability of data, and/or whether the crop in question is produced to any substantial extent.
62. There are also three significant and negative pairs. The obvious explanation for a negative correlation is trade between the partners in question, in which the surpluses of one country respond to the shortages in the other. The trade data are not sufficiently disaggregated to verify this explanation directly.
63. Import and export tables for grains can be found in Weeks and Subasat, The Potential for Agricultural Trade.
64. See C. Gore, 'International Order, Economic Regionalism and Structure Adjustment: The Case of Sub-Saharan Africa', Progress in Planning, 37, 3 (1992).
65. N. Liang, 'Beyond Import Substitution and Export Promotion: A New Typology of Trade Strategies', Journal of Development Studies, 28, 3 (April 1992).
66. Mosley, Subasat and Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa'; P. Mosley, 'Development Economics and the Underdevelopment of Africa, Journal of International Development 7, 5 (September/October, 1995).
67. Mosley, Subasat and Weeks, 'Assessing Adjustment in Africa'; P. Mosley, 'Development Economics and the Underdevelopment of Africa, Journal of International Development 7, 5 (September/October, 1995).