Lessons from the second AIDS virus, HIV-2

AIDS

Volumn 10, Issue 7, 1996, Pages 689-699

  Marlink, Richard ^a  

^a Harvard AIDS Institute   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; CLINICAL FEATURE; EDITORIAL; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 2; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS PREVALENCE; IMMUNE RESPONSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; VIRION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

EID: 0029945195     PISSN: 02699370     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00002030-199606001-00002     Document Type: Editorial

References (217)

1. Barin F, Mboup S, Denis F, et al.: Serological evidence for virus related to simian T-lymphotropic retrovirus type III in residents of West Africa. Lancet 1985, ii:1387-1389.
2. Clavel F, Guetard D, Brun-Vezinet F: Isolation of a new human retrovirus from West African patients with AIDS. Science 1986, 233:343-346.
3. Denis F, Barin F, Gershy-Damet G, et al.: Prevalence of human T-lymphotropic retroviruses type III (HIV) and type IV in Ivory Coast. Lancet 1987, i:408-411.
4. Kanki P, Mboup S Ricard D: Human T-lymphotropic virus type and the human immunodeficiency virus in West Africa. Science 1987, 236:827-831.
5. Horsburgh CR, Holmberg SC: The global distribution of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) infection. Transfusion 1988, 28:192-195.
6. Rey MA, Girard PM, Harzic M, Madjar JJ, Brun-Vezinet F, Saimot AG: HIV-1 and HIV-2 double infection in French homosexual male with AIDS-related complex (Paris, 1985). Lancet 1987, i:388-389.
7. De Cock KM, Brun-Vézinet F: Epidemiology of HIV-2 infection. AIDS 1989, 3 (suppl 1):S89-S95.
8. Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff A: The spread of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 into Europe: a geographical analysis. Int J Epidemiol 1990, 20:480-489.
9. Bottiger B, Palme IB, Da Costa L: Prevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2/HTLV-IV infections in Luanda and Cabinda, Angola. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1988, 1:8-12.
10. Barreto J, Liljestrand J, Palha de Sousa C, et al.: HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies in pregnant women in the city of Maputo, Mozambique: a comparative study between 1982/1983 and 1990. Scand J Infect Dis 1993, 25:685-688.
11. Cortes E, Detels R, Aboulafia D, et al.: HIV-1, HIV-2, and HTLV-I infection in high-risk groups in Brazil. N Engl J Med 1989, 320:953-958.
12. Rubsamen-Waigmann H, Briesen H, Maniar J, Rao P, Scholz C, Pfutzner A: Spread of HIV-2 in India [letter]. Lancet 1991, 337:550-551.
13. Pfutzner A, Dietrich U, von Eichel U, et al.: HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections in a high-risk population in Bombay, India: evidence for the spread of HIV-2 and presence of a divergent HIV-1 subtype. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:972-977.
14. Bollinger RC, Tripathy SP, Quinn TC: The human immunodeficiency virus epidemic in India. Current magnitude and future projections. Medicine 1995, 74:97-106.
15. Kanki P, Allan J, Barin F: Absence of antibodies to HIV-2/HTLV-4 in six Central African nations. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1987, 3:317-322.
16. Nkowane BM: Prevalence and incidence of HIV infection in Africa: a review of data published in 1990. AIDS 1991, 5 (suppl 1):S7-S15.
17. Zekeng L, Salla R, Kaptue L: HIV-2 infection in Cameroon: no evidence of indigenous cases [letter]. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:319-320.
18. Ayanian J, Maguire J, Marlink R, Essex M, Kanki P: HIV-2 infection in the United Slates [letter]. N Engl J Med 1989, 320:1422-1423.
19. O'Brien TR, George JR, Holmberg SD: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection in the United States. JAMA 1992, 267:2775-2779.
20. Onorato IM, O'Brien TR, Schable CA, Spruill C, Holmberg SD: Sentinel surveillance for HIV-2 infection in high-risk US populations. Am J Public Health 1993, 83:515-519.
21. Gershy-Damet G, Koffi K, Soro B, et al.: Seroepidemiological survey of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections in the five regions of Ivory Coast [letter]. AIDS 1991, 5:462-463.
22. Sabbatani S, Mangiarotti V, Tedei F, et al.: HIV-1 and HIV-2 seroprevalence in tuberculosis patients in Guinea-Bissau. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:536-537.
23. Djoman G, Toussou O, Diallo MO, et al.: Divergent trends in HIV-1 and HIV-2 seroprevalance in selected populations in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987-1992. International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Marrakesh, December 1993 [abstract MoP56].
24. Sow PS, Faye MA, Diop BM, Diouf G, Colebunders R, Coll-Seck AM: Increasing numbers of AIDS cases, mostly caused by HIV-1 infection, in Dakar (Senegal). Ann Soc Belge Med Trop 1994, 74:253-255.
25. Mboup S, Gershey-Damet G: HIV and AIDS in West Africa In AIDS in Africa. Edited by Essex M, Mboup S, Kanki P, Kalengayi M. New York: Raven Press; 1994:613-649.
26. Clavel F, Mansinho K, Chamaret S, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection associated with AIDS in West Africa. N Engl J Med 1987, 316:1180-1185.
27. Guyader M, Emerman M, Sonigo P, Clavel F, Montagnier L, Alizon M. Genome organization and transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Nature 1987, 326:662-669.
28. Le Guenno B, Jean P, Peghini M, et al.: Increasing HIV-2-associated AIDS in Senegal. Lancet 1987, ii:972-973.
29. Romieu I, Marlink R, Kanki P: HIV-2 link to AIDS in West Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1990, 3:220-230.
30. Marlink RG, Ricard D, Mboup S, et al.: Clinical, hematologic, and immunologic cross-sectional evaluation of individuals exposed to human immunodeficiency virus type-2 (HIV-2). AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1988, 4:137-147.
31. Pepin J, Morgan G, Dunn D, et al.: HIV-2-induced immunosuppression among asymptomatic West African prostitutes: evidence that HIV-2 is pathogenic, but less so than HIV-1. AIDS 1991, 5:1165-1172.
32. Nauclér A, Albino P, Paolo Da Silva PA, Andreasson PÅ, Andersson S, Biberfeld G: HIV-2 infection in hospitalized patients in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1991, 5:301-304.
33. Whittle H, Egboga A, Todd J, et al.: Immunological responses of Gambians in relation to clinical stage of HIV-2 disease. Clin Exp Immunol 1993, 93:45-50.
34. Bryceson A, Tomkins A, Ridley D, et al.: HIV-2-associated AIDS in the 1970s [letter]. Lancet 1988, ii:221.
35. Smith TF, Srinivasan A, Schochetman G, Marcus M, Myers G: The phylogenetic history of immunodeficiency viruses. Nature 1988, 333:573-575.
36. Gojobori T, Moriyama EN, Ina Y, et al.: Evolutionary origin of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990, 87:4108-4111.
37. Piot P, Plummer FA, Mhalu FS, Lamboray J-L, Chin J, Mann JM: AIDS: an international perspective. Science 1988, 239:573-579.
38. Sharp PM, Li WH: Understanding the origins of AIDS viruses [letter]. Nature 1988, 336:315.
39. Gojobori T, Moriyama EN, Kimura M: Molecular clock of viral evolution, and the neutral theory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990, 87:10015-10018.
40. Allan JS, Short M, Taylor ME, et al.: Species-specific diversity among simian immunodeficiency viruses from African green monkeys. J Virol 1991, 65:2816-2828.
41. Hirsch VM, Dapolito G, Johnson PR, et al.: Induction of AIDS by simian immunodeficiency virus from an African green monkey: species-specific variation in pathogenicity correlates with the extent of in vivo replication. J Virol 1995, 69:955-967.
42. Essex M, Kanki P: The origins of the AIDS virus. Sci Am 1988, 259:64-71.
43. Marx P, Li Y, Lerche N, et al.: Isolation of a simian immunodeficiency virus related to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 from a west African pet sooty mangebey. J Virol 1991, 65:4480-4485.
44. Gao F, Yue L, White A, et al.: Human infection by genetically diverse SIVSM-related HIV-2 in West Africa. Nature 1992, 358:495-499.
45. smmPBj14 infection of macaques. Virus Res 1994, 32:205-225.
46. Daniel MD, Letvin NL, King NW, et al.: Isolation of T-cell tropic HTLV-III-like retrovirus from macaques. Science 1985, 228:1201-1204.
47. Poulsen A-G, Kvinesdal B, Aaby P, et al.: Prevalence of and mortality from human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in Bissau, West Africa. Lancet 1989, i:827-831.
48. Nauclér A, Andreasson P-Å, Costa CM, Thorstensson R, Biberfeld G: HIV-2-associated AIDS and HIV-2 seroprevalence in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1989, 2:88-93.
49. Le Guenno BM, Barabe P, Griffet PA, et al.: HIV-2 and HIV-1 AIDS cases in Senegal: clinical patterns and immunological perturbations. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991, 4:421-427.
50. Kanki P, Mboup S, Marlink R, et al.: Prevalence and risk determinants of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in West African female prostitutes. Am J Epidemiol 1992, 136:895-907.
51. Ricard D, Wilkins A, N'Gum PT, et al.: The effects of HIV-2 infection in a rural area of Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1994, 8:977-982.
52. Abbott RC, Ndour-Sarr A, Diouf A, et al.: Risk factors for HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection in pregnant woman in Dakar, Senegal. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994, 7:711-717.
53. Lisse IM, Poulsen A-G, Aaby P, et al.: Immunodeficiency in HIV-2 infection: a community study from Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1990, 4:1263-1266.
54. Poulsen AG, Aaby P, Gottschau A, Dias F, Kvinesdal B, Molbak K: HIV-2 in Bissau, 1987-1989: prevalence and incidence in a sample of the general population. V International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TRTG6].
55. Wilkins A, Hayes R, Alonso P et al.: Risk factors for HIV-2 infection in The Gambia. AIDS 1991, 5:1127-1132.
56. Le Guenno B, Pison G, Enel C, Lagarde E, Seek C: HIV-2 infections in a rural Senegalese community. J Med Virol 1992, 38:67-70.
57. Kanki P: Perinatal transmission of HIV-2. IV International Conference on AIDS. Stockholm, June 1988 [abstract 6601].
58. Gayle H, Gnaore E, Adjorlolo G, et al.: HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection in children Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:513-517.
59. Rouzioux C, Mayaux M, Blanche S, et al.: The materno-fetal transmission rates of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in France. VIII International Conference on AIDS. Amsterdam, July 1992 [abstract WeC1063].
60. Del Mistro A, Chatard J, Hall AF, Whittle H, De Rossi A, Chieco-Bianchi L: HIV-1 and HIV-2 seroprevalence rates in mother-child pairs living in Gambia (West Africa). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:19-24.
61. Poulsen AG, Kvinesdal BB, Aaby P, et al.: Lack of evidence of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in a sample of the general population in Bissau. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:25-30.
62. Andreasson P-Å, Dias F, Nauclér A, Andersson S, Biberfeld G: A prospective study of vertical transmission of HIV-2 in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1993, 7:989-993.
63. Mofenson LM: Epidemiology and determinants of vertical HIV transmission. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 1994, 5:252-265.
64. Ryder RW, Behets F: Reasons for the wide variation in reported rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. AIDS 1994, 8:1495-1497.
65. Kanki PJ, Travers KU, Mboup S, et al.: Slower heterosexual spread of HIV-2 than HIV-1. Lancet 1994, 343:943-946.
66. De Cock KM, Odehouri K, Colebunders RL, et al.: A comparison of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections in hospitalized patients in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. AIDS 1990, 4:443-448.
67. De Cock KM, Gnaore E, Adjorlolo G, et al.: Risk of tuberculosis in patients with HIV-I and HIV-II infections in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. BMJ 1991, 302:496-499.
68. Belec L, Martin PMV, Georges-Courbot MC, et al.: Dementia as the primary manifestation of HIV2 infection in a Central African patient. Ann Inst Pasteur 1988, 139:291-294.
69. Hormigo A, Bravo-Marques JM, Souza-Ramalho P, Pimentel J, Teixeira C, Martins R. Uveomeningoencephalitis in a human immunodeficiency virus type 2-seropositive patient. Ann Neurol 1988, 23:308-310.
70. Hugon J, Giordano C, Dumas M, et al.: HIV-2 antibodies in African with spastic paraplegia [letter]. Lancet 1988, i:189.
71. Klemm E, Schneweis KE, Horn R, Tackmann W, Schulze G, Schneider J: HIV-II infection with initial neurological manifestation. J Neurol 1988, 235:304-307.
72. Sabbatani S, Mangiarotti V, Tedei F, et al.: Tuberculosis (TB) associated with HIV-2 infections in Guinea-Bissau. VI International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Dakar, December 1991 [abstract WA 192].
73. Nauclér A, Albino P, Andersson S: Clinical and immunological follow-up of previously hospitalised HIV-2 seropositive patients in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Scand J Infect Dis 1992, 24:725-731.
74. Ancelle R, Bletry O, Baglin AC, et al.: Long incubation period for HIV-2 infection. Lancet 1987, i:688-689.
75. Burin des Roziers N, Bruet A, Leger JP, et al.: Infection par le virus HIV-2 avec longue période d'incubation [letter]. Presse Méd 1987, 16:1981.
76. Dufoort G, Couroucé A-M, Ancelle-Park R, Bletry O: No clinical signs 14 years after HIV-2 transmission via blood transfusion [letter]. Lancet 1988, ii:510.
77. Marlink R, Kanki P, Thior I, et al.: Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science 1994, 265:1587-1590.
78. Dawson SG, Chapel HM, Eglin RP: Zidovudine and HIV-2 disease [letter]. AIDS 1990, 4:933.
79. Simon F, Matheron S, Tamalet C, et al.: Cellular and plasma viral load in patients infected with HIV-2. AIDS 1993, 7:1411-1417.
80. Coates JA, Cammack N, Jenkinson HJ, et al.: The separated enantiomers of 2′-deoxy-3′-thiacytidine (BCH 189) both inhibit human immunodeficiency virus replication in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992, 36:202-205.
81. Schinazi RF, McMillan A, Cannon D, et al.: Selective inhibition of human immunodeficiency viruses by racemates and enantiomers of cis-5-fluoro-1-[2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-oxathiolan-5-yl]cytosine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992, 36:2423-2431.
82. Cinatl J Jr, Cinatl J, Rabenau H, Gumbel H, Doerr HW: In vitro anti-human immunodeficiency virus activity of 2′,3′-dideoxynucleosides and their effect on clonal growth of hemopoietic cells from human bone marrow. Arzneimittelforschung 1993, 43:622-625.
83. Cox SW, Aperia K, Albert J, Wahren B: Comparison of the sensitivities of primary isolates of HIV type 2 and HIV type 1 to antiviral drugs and drug combinations. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1725-1729.
84. Okruszek A, Olesiak M, Balzarini J: The synthesis of nucleoside 5′-O-(1,1-dithiotriphosphates). J Med Chem 1994, 37:3850-3854.
85. Richman DD: Dideoxynucleosides are less inhibitory in vitro against human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) than against HIV-1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987, 31:1879-1881.
86. Koup RA, Merluzzi VJ, Hargrave KD, et al.: Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication by the dipyridodiazepinone BI-RG-587. J Infect Dis 1991, 163:966-970.
87. Richman D, Rosenthal AS, Skoog M, et al.: BI-RG-587 is active against zidovudine-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and synergistic with zidovudine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991, 35:305-308.
88. Hoffman JM, Wai JS, Thomas CM, Levin RB, O'Brien JA, Goldman ME: Synthesis and evaluation of 2-pyridinone derivatives as HIV-1 specific reverse transcriptase inhibitors. 1. Phthalimidoalkyl and -alkylamino analogues. J Med Chem 1992, 35:3784-3791.
89. Bacolla A, Shih CK, Rose JM, et al.: Amino acid substitutions in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase with corresponding residues from HIV-2. Effect on kinetic constants and inhibition by non-nucleoside analogs. J Biol Chem 1993, 268:16571-16577.
90. Buckheit RW Jr, Fliakas-Boltz V, Decker WD, et al.: Biological and biochemical anti-HIV activity of the benzothiadiazine class of nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antiviral Res 1994, 25:43-56.
91. Rubinek T, McMahon JB, Hizi A: Inhibition of reverse transcriptase of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and chimeric enzymes of human immunodeficiency viruses types 1 and type 2 by two novel non-nucleoside inhibitors. FEBS Lett 1994, 350:299-303.
92. Kageyama S, Mimoto T, Murakawa Y, et al.: In vitro anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) activities of transition state mimetic HIV protease inhibitors containing allophenylnorstatine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37:810-817.
93. Otto MJ, Reid CD, Garber S, et al.: In vitro anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) activity of XM323, a novel HIV protease inhibitor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37:2606-2611.
94. Barrish JC, Godon E, Alam M, et al.: Aminodiol HIV protease inhibitors. 1. Design, synthesis, and preliminary SAR. J Med Chem 1994, 37:1758-1768.
95. Markovitz DM: Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Ann Intern Med 1993, 118:211-218.
96. Marlink R: The biology and epimediology of HIV-2. In AIDS in Africa. Edited by Essex M, Mboup S, Kanki PJ, Kalengayi MR. New York: Raven Press: 1994:47-65.
97. Willey RL, Maldarelli F, Martin MA, Strebel K: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vpu protein induces rapid degradation of CD4. J Virol 1992, 66:7193-7200.
98. Willey RL, Maldarelli F, Martin MA, Strebel K: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vpu protein regulates the formation of intracellular gp160-CD4 complexes. J Virol 1992, 66:226-234.
99. Tristem M, Marshall C, Karpas A, Petrik J, Hill F: Origin of vpx in lentiviruses [letter]. Nature 1990, 347:341-342.
100. Matsuda Z, Yu X, Yu Q-C, Lee T-H, Essex M: A virion-specific inhibitory molecule with therapeutic potential for human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993, 90:3544-3548.
101. Miura T, Sakuragi J, Kawamura M, et al.: Establishment of a phylogenetic survey system for AIDS-related lentiviruses and demonstration of a new HIV-2 subgroup. AIDS 1990, 4:1257-1261.
102. Breuer J, Douglas NW, Goldman N, Daniels RS: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) env gene analysis: prediction of glycoprotein epitopes important for heterotypic neutralization and evidence for three genotype clusters within the HIV-2 subtype. J Gen Virol 1995, 76:333-345.
103. Gao F, Yue L, Robertson DL, et al.: Genetic diversity of human immunodeficiency virus type 2: evidence for distinct sequence subtypes with differences in virus biology. J Virol 1994, 68:7433-7447.
104. Kong LI, Lee S-W, Kappes JC, et al.: West African HIV-2-related human retrovirus with attenuated cytopathicity. Science 1988, 240:1525-1529.
105. Hoxie JA, Brass LF, Pletcher CH, Haggarty BS, Hahn BH: Cytopathic variants of an attenuated isolate of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 exhibit increased affinity for CD4. J Virol 1991, 65:5096-5101.
106. Innocenti P, Seigneurin J-M: HIV chronic infection of promonocytic cells. Res Virol 1990, 141:267-278.
107. Clapham PR, Blanc D, Weiss RA: Specific cell surface requirements for the infection of CD4-positive cells by human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 and by simian immunodeficiency virus. Virology 1991, 181:703-715.
108. Clapham P, McKnight A, Simmons G, Weiss R: Is CD4 sufficient for HIV entry? Cell surface molecules involved in HIV infection. Phil Trans R Soc [London] 1993, 342:67-73.
109. Allan JS, Strauss J, Buck DW: Enhancement of SIV infection with soluble receptor molecules. Science 1990, 247:1084-1088.
110. Sekigawa I, Chamow SM, Groopman JE, Byrn RA: CD4 immunoadhesin, but not recombinant soluble CD4, blocks syncytium formation by human immunodeficiency virus type 2-infected lymphoid cells. J Virol 1990, 64:5194-5198.
111. Clapham PR, McKnight A, Weiss RA: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection and fusion of CD4-negative human cell lines: induction and enhancement by soluble CD4. J Virol 1992, 66:3531-3537.
112. Ho DD, Neumann AU, Perelson AS, Chen W, Leonard JM, Markowitz M: Rapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection. Nature 1995, 373:123-126.
113. Wei X, Ghosh SK, Taylor ME, et al.: Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Nature 1995, 373:117-122.
114. Coffin JM: HIV population dynamics in vivo: implications for genetic variation, pathogenesis, and therapy. Science 1995, 267:483-489.
115. Robert-Guroff M, Aldrich K, Muldoon R, et al.: Cross-neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 and simian immunodeficiency virus isolates. J Virol 1992, 66:3602-3608.
116. Bjorling E, Scarlatti G, von Gegerfelt A, et al.: Autologous neutralizing antibodies prevail in HIV-2 but not in HIV-1 infection. Virology 1993, 193:528-530.
117. Tamalet C, Simon F, Dhiver C, et al.: Autologous neutralizing antibodies and viral load in HIV-2-infected individuals [letter]. AIDS 1995, 9:90-91.
118. Kundu SK, Merigan TC: Relationship of HIV-1 provirus load, CD8+ CD11 + cells and HIV-1 envelope-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in HIV-infected asymptomatic offients. Immunology 1994, 83:81-85.
119. Ariyoshi K, Berry N, Wilkins A, et al.: A community-based study of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 provirus load in rural village in West Africa. J Infect Dis 1996, 173:245-248.
120. Rowland-Jones S, Sutton J, Ariyoshi K, et al.: HIV-specific cytotoxic T-cells in HIV-exposed but uninfected Gambian women. Nature Med 1995, 1:59-64.
121. Chollet-Martin S, Simon F, Matheron S, Joseph CA, Elbim C, Gougerot-Pocidalo MA: Comparison of plasma cytokine levels in African patients with HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection. AIDS 1994, 8:879-884.
122. Jaleco A, Covas M, Pinto L, Victorino R: Distinct alterations in the distribution of CD45RO+ T-cell subsets in HIV-2 compared with HIV-1 infection. AIDS 1994, 8:1663-1668.
123. Evans LA, Moreau J, Odehouri K, et al.: Simultaneous isolation of HIV-1 and HIV-2 from an AIDS patient. Lancet 1988, ii:1389-1391.
124. Travers K, Mboup S, Marlink R, et al.: Natural protection against HIV-1 infection provided by HIV-2. Science 1995, 268:1612-1615.
125. von Dalnock GK, Kleinschmidt A, Neumann M, Leib-Moesch C, Erfle V, Brack-Werner R: Productive expression state confers resistance of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2-infected lymphoma cells against superinfection by HIV-1. Arch Virol 1993, 131:419-429.
126. Al-Harthi L, Garzino-Demo A, Peng B, Arya SK: Cell-type independent and dose-dependent inhibition of HIV-1 by HIV-2. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11 (suppl 1):S113.
127. Putkonen P, Walther L, Zhang YJ, et al.: Long-term protection against SIV-induced disease in macaques vaccinated with a live attenuated HIV-2 vaccine. Nature Med 1995, 1:914-918.
128. Matsuda Z, Chou MJ, Matsuda M, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 has an additional coding sequence in the central region of the genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:6968-6972.
129. Cohen EA, Terwilliger EF, Sodroski JG, Haseltine WA: Identification of a protein encoded by the vpu gene of HIV-1. Nature 1988, 334:532-554.
130. Strebel K, Klimkait T, Martin MA: A novel gene of HIV-1, vpu, and its 16-kilodalton product. Science 1988, 241:1221-1223.
131. Franchini G, Rusche JR, O'Keeffe TJ, Wong-Staal F: The human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) contains a novel gene encoding a 16 kD protein associated with mature virions. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1988, 4:243-250.
132. Henderson LE, Sowder RC, Copeland TD, Benveniste RE, Oroszlan S: Isolation and characterization of a novel protein (X-ORF product) from SIV and HIV-2. Science 1988, 241:199-201.
133. mat. J Virol 1988, 62:3501-3505.
134. Yu X, Ito S, Essex M, Lee TH: A naturally immunogenic virion-associated protein specific for HIV-2 and SIV. Nature 1988, 335:262-265.
135. Sankale J, Sallier de la Tour R, Renjifo B, et al.: Intrapatient variability of the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 envelope V3 loop. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:617-623.
136. Hizi A, Tal R, Shaharabany M, Loya S: Catalytic properties of the reverse transcriptase of human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 and type 2. J Biol Chem 1991, 266:6230-6239.
137. Hizi A, Tal R, Hughes SH: Mutational analysis of the DNA polymerase and ribonuclease H activities of human immunodeficiency virus types 2 reverse transcriptase expressed in Escherichia coli. Virology 1991, 180:339-346.
138. Urabe T, Sano K, Nakano T, et al.: Differentiation between human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2 isolates by nonradioisotopic reverse transcriptase-typing assay. J Clin Microbiol 1994, 32:1870-1875.
139. Markovitz DM, Hannibal M, Perez VL, Gauntt C, Folks TM, Nabel GJ: Differential regulation of human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs): a specific regulatory element in HIV-2 responds to stimulation of the T-cell antigen receptor. Proc Natl Acid Sci USA 1990, 87:9098-9102.
140. Hilfinger JM, Clark N, Smith M, Robinson K, Markovitz DM: Differential regulation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 enhancer in monocytes at various stages of differentiation. J Virol 1993, 67:4448-4453.
141. Hannibal MC, Markovitz DM, Clark N, Nabel GJ: Differential activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 transcription by specific T-cell activation signals. J Virol 1993, 67:5035-5040.
142. Arya SK, Gallo RC: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 long terminal repeat: analysis of regulatory elements. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:9753-9757.
143. Tong-Starksen S, Welsh T, Peterlin M: Differences in transcriptional enhancers of HIV-1 and HIV-2 response to T-cell activation signals. J Immunol 1990, 145:4348-4354.
144. Rhim H, Rice AP: HIV-2 Tat protein is able to efficiently transactivate the HIV-2 LTR through a TAR RNA element lacking both dinucleotide bulge binding sites. Virology 1995, 206:673-678.
145. Echetebu CO, Rhim H, Herrman CH, Rice AP: Construction and characterization of a potent HIV-2 Tat transdominant mutant protein. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994, 7:655-664.
146. Zuber M, Samuel KP, Lautenberger JA, Kanki PJ, Papas TS: Bacterially produced HIV-2 env polypeptides specific for distinguishing HIV-2 from HIV-1 infections. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1990, 6:525-534.
147. Huang ML, Essex M, Lee T-H: Localization of immunogenic domains in the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 envelope. J Virol 1991, 65:5073-5079.
148. Byrn RA, Sekigawa I, Chamow SM, et al.: Characterization of in vitro inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus by purified recombinant CD4. J Virol 1989, 63:4370-4375.
149. Looney DJ, Hayashi S, Nicklas M, et al.: Differences in the interaction of HIV-1 and HIV-2 with CD4. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1990, 3:649-657.
150. Moore JP: Simple methods for monitoring HIV-1 and HIV-2 gp120 binding to soluble CD4 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: HIV-2 has a 25-fold lower affinity than HIV-1 for soluble CD4. AIDS 1990, 4:297-505.
151. Mulligan MJ, Ritter GD, Chaikin MA, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 envelope glycoprotein: differential CD4 interactions of soluble gp120 versus the assembled envelope complex. Virology 1992, 187:233-241.
152. Babas T, Benichou S, Guetard D, Montagnier L, Bahraoui E: Specificity of antipeptide antibodies produced against V2 and V3 regions of the external envelope of human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Mol Immunol 1994, 31:361-369.
153. Evans LA, Moreau J, Odehouri K, et al.: Characterization of a noncytopathic HIV-2 strain with unusual effects on CD4 expression. Science 1987, 240:1522-1525.
154. Kumar P, Hui H, Kappes JC, et al.: Molecular characterization of an attenuated human immunodeficiency virus type 2 isolate. J Virology 1990, 64:890-901.
155. Korber B, Kanki P, Barin F, Mboup S, Travers K, Essex M: Genetic and antigenic variability in different HIV-2 viral isolates. IV International Conference on AIDS and Associated Cancers in Africa. Marseille, October 1989 [abstract 327].
156. Essex M, Kanki PJ: Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2). In Textbook of AIDS Medicine. Edited by Broder S, Merigan T, Bolognesi D. Baltimore: William & Wilkins; 1994:873-886.
157. Yu QC, Matsuda Z, Yu X, Ito S, Essex M, Lee TH: An electronlucent region within the virion distinguishes human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) type 1 from HIV-2 and simian immunodeficiency virus. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:745-749.
158. Traore I, Thior I, Marlink R, et al.: Natural history of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in a cohort of West African female sex workers. IX International Conference on AIDS and STD in Africa. Kampala, December 1995 [abstract MOA006].
159. Adjorlolo-Johnson G, De Cock KM, Ekpini E, et al.: Prospective comparison of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. JAMA 1994, 272:462-466.
160. Adjovi C, Josse R, Foundohou J, Helynck B, Davo N: HIV seroprevalence rates in Benin [letter]. AIDS 1994, 8:1021-1022.
161. Akinsete I, Nasidi A, Egbewunmi A: Seroprevalence of HIV infection in various groups tested at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria. IV International Conference: AIDS and Associated Cancers in Africa. Marseille, October 1989 [abstract 400].
162. Asseta A, Rahlenbeck S, Molla K, Shitaye A: Seroprevalence of HIV-1 and syphilis antibodies in blood donors in Gonder, Ethiopia, 1989-1993. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994, 7:1282-1285.
163. Bailly C, Santiago M, Abbate M: Situation in Djibouti: seroepidemiological survey. Presented at III International Conference: AIDS and Associated Cancers in Africa. Arusha, September 1988.
164. Bassadi K, Badombena I, Tataugne A: Seroprevalence of HIV in a population of young adults in Togo. VII International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Yaounde, December 1992 [abstract TP029].
165. Bassett M, Latif A, Katzenstein D, Emmanuel J: Sexual behavior and risk factors for HIV infection in a group of male factory workers who donated blood in Harare, Zimbabwe. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:556-559.
166. Behets F, Bishagara K, Disasi A: Diagnosis of HIV infection with instrument-free assays as an alternative to the ELISA and Western Blot testing strategy: an evaluation in Central Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:878-882.
167. Berteau F, Mention J, Tissedre J, et al.: Evaluation of the seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV) in Haut Ogooue Province in Gabon in pregnant women and blood donor control groups [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exotique 1993, 86:12-15.
168. Borgdorff M, Barongo L, van Jaarsveld E, et al.: Sentinel surveillance for HIV-1 infection: how representative are blood donors, outpatients with fever, anaemia, or sexually transmitted disease, and antenatal clinic attenders in Mwanza Region, Tanzania? AIDS 1993, 7:567-572.
169. Braddick MR, Kreiss JK, Embree JE, et al.: Impact of maternal HIV infection on obstetrical and early neonatal outcome. AIDS 1990, 4:1001-1005.
170. Bredberg-Rådén U, Kiango J, Mhalu F, Biberfeld C: Evaluation of commercial enzyme immunoassays for anti-HIV-1 using East African sera. AIDS 1988, 2:281-285.
171. Bucyendore A, Van de Perre P, Karita E, Nziyumvira A, Sow I, Fox E: Estimating the seroincidence of HIV-1 in the general adult population in Kigali, Rwanda. AIDS 1993, 7:275-277.
172. Bulterys M, Chao A, Habimana P, Dushimimana A, Nawrocki P, Saah A: Incident HIV-1 infection in a cohort of young women in Butare, Rwanda. AIDS 1994, 8:1585-1591.
173. Caussy D, Terrinha A, Evans A, Reis D, Nunes J, Blattner W: Changes in HIV-2 seroprevalence in Cape Verde, West Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1993, 6:432-433.
174. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Update: HIV-2 infection among blood and plasma donors - United States, June 1992-June 1995. MMWR 1995, 44:603-606.
175. Coulibaly YN, Sankale JL, Gueye A: HIV-1 and HIV-2 in Mauritania. IV International Conference: AIDS and Associated Cancers in Africa. Marseille, October 1989 [abstract 028].
176. Dallabetta G, Miotti P, Chiphangwi J, et al.: High socioeconomic status is a risk factor for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) but not for sexually transmitted diseases in women in Malawi: implications for HIV-1 control. J Infect Dis 1993, 167:36-42.
177. Davo N, Adjovi C, Zohoun I: Sentinel serosurveillance of HIV in Benin: first results from 1990. VI International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Dakar, December 1990 [abstract MA 157].
178. De Cock KM: Measuring the impact of HIV/AIDS in Africa. AIDS 1994, 8:127-128.
179. Del Mistro A, Chotard J, Hall AJ, Whittle H, De Rossi A, Chieco-Bianchi L: Seroprevalence of human retroviral infection in The Gambia. V International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TOB3].
180. Delaporte E, Dupont A, Merlin M, et al.: Seroepidemiological survey of HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies in Gabon [letter]. AIDS 1988, 2:136-137.
181. Ferro A, Ghidinelli M, Mane I: HIV-2 infection, TPHA and HBsAg positivity in blood donors of Guinea Bissau. VII International Conference on AIDS. Florence, June 1991 [abstract 3222].
182. Garcia-Calleja JM, Mvondo JL, Zekeng L, et al.: A short term projection of HIV infection and AIDS cases in Cameroon. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992, 86:435-437.
183. Giasuddin A, Ziu M, Shaafie I: Brucella and HIV-1 antibodies in Libyan blood donors. J Infect 1991, 22:294-296.
184. Giraldo G, Serwadda D, Mugerwa R: Seroepidemiologic analyses on populations from Uganda and Tunisia - high and low risk African regions for HIV infections respectively. IV International Conference on AIDS. Stockholm, June 1988 [abstract 5038].
185. Hudson CP: Stable prevalence of HIV-1 in African populations [letter]. AIDS 1994, 8:1739-1740.
186. Jeannel D, Kourouma K, Fretz C, et al.: Regional differences in human retroviral infections HIV-1, HIV-2, and HTLV-I/II in rural Guinea (West Africa). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995, 8:315-318.
187. Kigadye R-M, Klokke A, Nicoll A, et al.: Sentinel surveillance for HIV-1 among pregnant women in a developing country: 3 years' experience and comparison with a population serosurvey. AIDS 1993, 7:849-855.
188. Kosia A, Kargbo T, Makiu E: Prevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2 among blood donors in Sierra Leone. IV International Conference: AIDS and Associated Cancers in Africa. Marseille, October 1989 [abstract 390].
189. Kourouma K, Diallo P, Diallo K: Evolution of HIV-1 and HIV-2 seroprevalence in Guinea. IV International Conference: AIDS and Associated Cancers. Marseille, October 1989 [abstract 016].
190. Lallemant M, Lallemant-Le Coeur S, Cheynier D, et al.: Characteristics associated with HIV-1 infection in pregnant women in Brazzaville, Congo. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:279-285.
191. Louis J, Trebucq A, Hengy C: Epidemiologie des infections a retrovirus VIH1 - VIH2 et HLV1 in Republique du Tchad. Bull Soc Pathol Exotique 1990, 83:603-610.
192. Maiga M, Diarra B, Guindo A, Maiga Y, Fofano O, Bougoudogo F: Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus infection (HIV) in Mali on 3,496 sera [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exotique 1993, 86:16-20.
193. Mbabazi E, Banura C: Marked reduction of HIV-1 seroprevalence among blood donors by interview. VII International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Yaounde, December 1992 [abstract TP179].
194. Mefane C, Benoni D, Guerch M: Seroprevalence des infections a retrovirus humains a Libreville (Gabon). Med Afr Noire 1989, 36:491-496.
195. Miehakanda J, Mahuwa M, Loufouma G: HIV infection in a Congolese semi-rural area and family structure. V International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TRE2].
196. Miehakanda J, Makuwa M, Penchenier I: Pygmies in the Congo: an ethnic group sheltered from STDs? V International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TPE25].
197. Morvan J, Carteron B, Laroche R: Seroepidemiological investigation of HIV infection in Burundi between 1980 and 1981 [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exotique 1989, 82:130-140.
198. Mounanga M, Revangue BS: Seroprevalence HIV1 chez la femme enceinte a Libreville (Gabon). J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod 1993, 22:509-512.
199. Ndoye I, Coll AM, Kane F: Migration, a factor of the propagation of HIV infection in Africa. International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TPE10].
200. Norrgren H, Andersson S, Naucler A, Dias F, Johansson I, Biberfeld G: HIV-1, HIV-2, HTLV-I/II and Treponema pallidum infections: incidence, prevalence, and HIV-2-associated mortality in an occupational cohort in Guinea-Bissau. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995, 9:422-428.
201. Ntutunu J, Garcia J, Lekeng L: HIV seroprevalence in blood donors in Equatorial Guinea. V International Conference: AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TPE32].
202. Ousseini H, Pecarrere JL, Meynard D: Evolution de la seroprevalence des infections a VIH1 et VIH2 a I Hopital National de Niamey, Niger. Bull Soc Pathol Exotique 1991, 84:235-239.
203. Prior CR, Buckle GC: Blood donors with antibody to the human immunodeficiency virus - the natal experience. South Afr Med J 1990, 77:623-625.
204. Riyad M, Trombati N: HIV infection among tuberculosis patients in Morocco. Eur Respir J 1992, 5:642-642.
205. Sangare L, Luki N, Travers K: HIV infection of pregnant women in Bobo Dioulasso (Burkina Faso). VI International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Dakar, December 1991 [abstract MA286].
206. Scott D, Corwin A, Constantine N, et al.: Low prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-I), HIV-2, and human T cell lymphotropic virus-1 infection in Somalia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991, 45:653-659.
207. Sokal D, Buzingo T, Nitunga N, Kadende P, Standaert B: Geographic and temporal stability of HIV seroprevalence among pregnant women in Bujumbura, Burundi. AIDS 1993, 7:1481-1484.
208. Somse P: Surveillance of HIV-1 infection in sentinel sites in four population groups in the Central African Republic. V International Conference on AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1991 [abstract TPE29].
209. Somsé P, Chapko MK, Hawkins RV: Multiple sexual partners: results of a national HIV/AIDS survey in the Central African Republic. AIDS 1993, 7:579-583.
210. Stanecki K: The Impact of HIV/AIDS on World Population. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census; 1993.
211. Temmerman M, Mohamed Ali F, Ndinya-Achola J, Moses S, Plummer FA, Piot P: Rapid increase of both HIV-1 infection and syphilis among pregnant women in Nairobi, Kenya. AIDS 1992, 6:1181-1185.
212. Thiam D, Le Guenno B, Seck/Fall K: The prevalence of HIV infection of Sein in the population of blood donors in the region of Dakar. V International Conference: AIDS in Africa. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TPE9].
213. Tognarelli B, Coste J, Pradines C, Larrey D, Michel H: Prevalence du virus de I hepatite delta en Mauritanie chez les donneurs de sang Ag HBs+ asymptomatiques et au cours des hepatopathies Ag HBs+ [letter]. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1994, 18:176.
214. Watts D, Constantine N, Sheba M, Kamal M, Callahan J, Kilpatrick M: Prevalence of HIV infection and AIDS in Egypt over four years of surveillance (1986-1990). J Trop Med Hyg 1993, 96:113-117.
215. Wilkins A, Oelman B, Pepin J et al: Trends in HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection in The Gambia [letter]. AIDS 1991, 5:1529-1530.
216. Yala F, Biendo M, Madzouka J: Actual absence of HIV-2 in Brazzaville (Congo). V International Conference on AIDS. Kinshasa, October 1990 [abstract TPE568].
217. Myers G, Korber B, Hahn B, et al.: Human Retroviruses and AIDS 1995. A Compilation and Analysis of Nucleic Acid and Amino Acid Sequences. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory; 1995.