Prospects for democratisation in a post-revolutionary setting: Central America

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 461-503

  Vilas, Carlos M ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTÓNOMA DE MÉXICO   (Mexico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATISATION; POLITICAL FACTORS; SOCIAL CONDITIONS; STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS;

CENTRAL AMERICA;

EID: 0029906689     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022216x00013079     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Estado democratización y ciudadanía', Nueva Sociedad, no. 128 (November 1993), pp. 62-87, and 'Delegative Democracy ', Journal of Democracy, vol. 5, no. 1 (1994), pp. 55-69. The danger of the majorities oppressing minorities through democratic procedures inspired one of de Tocqueville's most appealing discussions. Yet, it does not appear to be a threat to democracy in contemporary Central America.
2. Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Estado democratización y ciudadanía', Nueva Sociedad, no. 128 (November 1993), pp. 62-87, and 'Delegative Democracy ', Journal of Democracy, vol. 5, no. 1 (1994), pp. 55-69. The danger of the majorities oppressing minorities through democratic procedures inspired one of de Tocqueville's most appealing discussions. Yet, it does not appear to be a threat to democracy in contemporary Central America.
3. For recent restatements, see Marshall Wolfe, ' Las estructuras sociales y la democracia en los años noventa', Revista de la CEP AL, no. 40 (April 1990), pp. 55-71; John F. Helliwell, 'Empirical Linkages Between Democracy and Economic Growth', British Journal of Political Science, vol. 24 (1994), pp. 225-48.
4. For recent restatements, see Marshall Wolfe, ' Las estructuras sociales y la democracia en los años noventa', Revista de la CEP AL, no. 40 (April 1990), pp. 55-71; John F. Helliwell, 'Empirical Linkages Between Democracy and Economic Growth', British Journal of Political Science, vol. 24 (1994), pp. 225-48.
5. However, allegations of electoral fraud were one of the ingredients prompting the revolution led by José Figueres Ferrer in 1948.
6. See the interview with Salvadorean businessman Abraham Rodríguez, one of the founders of the Christian Democratic Party and El Salvador's Vice-President (Primer Designado) during José Napoleón Duarte's government, in Tendencias, no. 26 (December 1993), pp. 15-20. See also Enrique Baloyra, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15 (November 1983), pp. 295-319 ; Walter LaFever, Inevitable Revolutions. The United States in Central America (New York, 1984).
7. See the interview with Salvadorean businessman Abraham Rodríguez, one of the founders of the Christian Democratic Party and El Salvador's Vice-President (Primer Designado) during José Napoleón Duarte's government, in Tendencias, no. 26 (December 1993), pp. 15-20. See also Enrique Baloyra, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15 (November 1983), pp. 295-319 ; Walter LaFever, Inevitable Revolutions. The United States in Central America (New York, 1984).
8. See the interview with Salvadorean businessman Abraham Rodríguez, one of the founders of the Christian Democratic Party and El Salvador's Vice-President (Primer Designado) during José Napoleón Duarte's government, in Tendencias, no. 26 (December 1993), pp. 15-20. See also Enrique Baloyra, 'Reactionary Despotism in Central America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 15 (November 1983), pp. 295-319 ; Walter LaFever, Inevitable Revolutions. The United States in Central America (New York, 1984).
9. US Government, Report of the National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington, 1984); the Commission was chaired by former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. See also Lilia Bermúdez, Guerra de baja intensidad (Mexico City, 1987); Terry Karl, ' Exporting Democracy: The Unanticipated Effects of U.S. Electoral Policy in El Salvador', in Nora Hamilton et al. (eds.), Crisis in Central America. Regional Dynamics and U.S. Policy in the 1990s (Boulder, 1988), pp. 173-91; Thomas Carothers, 'The Reagan Years: The 1980s', in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991), pp. 90-122.
10. US Government, Report of the National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington, 1984); the Commission was chaired by former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. See also Lilia Bermúdez, Guerra de baja intensidad (Mexico City, 1987); Terry Karl, ' Exporting Democracy: The Unanticipated Effects of U.S. Electoral Policy in El Salvador', in Nora Hamilton et al. (eds.), Crisis in Central America. Regional Dynamics and U.S. Policy in the 1990s (Boulder, 1988), pp. 173-91; Thomas Carothers, 'The Reagan Years: The 1980s', in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991), pp. 90-122.
11. US Government, Report of the National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington, 1984); the Commission was chaired by former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. See also Lilia Bermúdez, Guerra de baja intensidad (Mexico City, 1987); Terry Karl, ' Exporting Democracy: The Unanticipated Effects of U.S. Electoral Policy in El Salvador', in Nora Hamilton et al. (eds.), Crisis in Central America. Regional Dynamics and U.S. Policy in the 1990s (Boulder, 1988), pp. 173-91; Thomas Carothers, 'The Reagan Years: The 1980s', in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991), pp. 90-122.
12. US Government, Report of the National Bipartisan Commission on Central America (Washington, 1984); the Commission was chaired by former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. See also Lilia Bermúdez, Guerra de baja intensidad (Mexico City, 1987); Terry Karl, ' Exporting Democracy: The Unanticipated Effects of U.S. Electoral Policy in El Salvador', in Nora Hamilton et al. (eds.), Crisis in Central America. Regional Dynamics and U.S. Policy in the 1990s (Boulder, 1988), pp. 173-91; Thomas Carothers, 'The Reagan Years: The 1980s', in Abraham F. Lowenthal (ed.), Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore, 1991), pp. 90-122.
13. Carlos M. Vilas, Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Market, State, and the Revolutions in Central America (New York, 1995), chapter 4.
14. For an updated quantitative overview, see CEPAL, Indicadores sociales básicos de la subregión norte de América Latina y el Caribe, 1950-1994 (Mexico City, LC/MEX/L/266, April 1995).
15. For a lengthy discussion of this approach see Carlos M. Vilas, ' Una patria para todos: Revolución, subdesarrollo y democracia en Nicaragua', in Pablo González Casanova and Marcos Roitman (eds.), La democracia en América Latina. Actualidad y perspectivas (Madrid, 1992), pp. 387-426. On citizenship as a pluridimensional process, see Bryan S. Turner, 'Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship', in Bryan S. Turner (ed.), Citizenship and Social Theory (London, 1993), pp. 1-18; on 'embeddedness', see Peter Evans, 'The State as Problem and Solution: Predation, Embedded Autonomy, and Structural Change', in Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman (eds.), The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, 1992), pp. 139-81.
16. For a lengthy discussion of this approach see Carlos M. Vilas, ' Una patria para todos: Revolución, subdesarrollo y democracia en Nicaragua', in Pablo González Casanova and Marcos Roitman (eds.), La democracia en América Latina. Actualidad y perspectivas (Madrid, 1992), pp. 387-426. On citizenship as a pluridimensional process, see Bryan S. Turner, 'Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship', in Bryan S. Turner (ed.), Citizenship and Social Theory (London, 1993), pp. 1-18; on 'embeddedness', see Peter Evans, 'The State as Problem and Solution: Predation, Embedded Autonomy, and Structural Change', in Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman (eds.), The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, 1992), pp. 139-81.
17. For a lengthy discussion of this approach see Carlos M. Vilas, ' Una patria para todos: Revolución, subdesarrollo y democracia en Nicaragua', in Pablo González Casanova and Marcos Roitman (eds.), La democracia en América Latina. Actualidad y perspectivas (Madrid, 1992), pp. 387-426. On citizenship as a pluridimensional process, see Bryan S. Turner, 'Contemporary Problems in the Theory of Citizenship', in Bryan S. Turner (ed.), Citizenship and Social Theory (London, 1993), pp. 1-18; on 'embeddedness', see Peter Evans, 'The State as Problem and Solution: Predation, Embedded Autonomy, and Structural Change', in Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman (eds.), The Politics of Economic Adjustment (Princeton, 1992), pp. 139-81.
18. As in the well-known model by W. Arthur Lewis, 'Economic Development with Unlimited Supply of Labour', The Manchester School of Economics Studies, vol. XXII, no. 1 (January 1954), pp. 139-91.
19. Joaquín Arriola and José Antonio Candray, Derechos prohibidos. Negociatión colectiva y sindicatos en El Salvador (San Salvador, 1994), pp. 49 ff.
20. It is worth recalling that the effective enfranchisement of low, middle, and labouring classes in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, coupled the development of domestic markets and the expansion of urban mass consumption. Carlos Zubillaga, 'El batllismo: una experiencia populista', in Carlos M. Vilas (ed.), La democratización fundamental. El populismo en América Latina (Mexico, 1994), pp. 177-213; José Murillo de Carvalho, Desenvolvimiento de la ciudadania en Brasil (Mexico City, 1995), passim.
21. It is worth recalling that the effective enfranchisement of low, middle, and labouring classes in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, coupled the development of domestic markets and the expansion of urban mass consumption. Carlos Zubillaga, 'El batllismo: una experiencia populista', in Carlos M. Vilas (ed.), La democratización fundamental. El populismo en América Latina (Mexico, 1994), pp. 177-213; José Murillo de Carvalho, Desenvolvimiento de la ciudadania en Brasil (Mexico City, 1995), passim.
22. See Mark Lindenberg, 'World Economic Cycles and Central American Political Instability', World Politics, vol. XLVII, no. 3 (April 1990), pp. 397-421.
23. Regional diversity may be appreciated through the UNDP's Index of Human Development (IHD). Costa Rica ranked as having a 'high' IHD (position 39), while Nicaragua ranked 106, Guatemala 108, El Salvador 112, and Honduras 115. UNDP, Human Development Report 1994 (UNDP, 1994), table 1.
24. Pedro Vuskoviç Bravo, Pobreza y desigualdad en América Latina (México, 1993); Oscar Altimir, 'Cambios de la desigualdad y la pobreza en América Latina', El Trimestre Económico, vol. 241 (1994), pp. 85-133; Nancy Birdsall, David Roos and Richard Sabott, 'La desigualdad como limitación del crecimiento en América Latina', Oikos, vol. 8 (September 1995), pp. 42-7.
25. Pedro Vuskoviç Bravo, Pobreza y desigualdad en América Latina (México, 1993); Oscar Altimir, 'Cambios de la desigualdad y la pobreza en América Latina', El Trimestre Económico, vol. 241 (1994), pp. 85-133; Nancy Birdsall, David Roos and Richard Sabott, 'La desigualdad como limitación del crecimiento en América Latina', Oikos, vol. 8 (September 1995), pp. 42-7.
26. Pedro Vuskoviç Bravo, Pobreza y desigualdad en América Latina (México, 1993); Oscar Altimir, 'Cambios de la desigualdad y la pobreza en América Latina', El Trimestre Económico, vol. 241 (1994), pp. 85-133; Nancy Birdsall, David Roos and Richard Sabott, 'La desigualdad como limitación del crecimiento en América Latina', Oikos, vol. 8 (September 1995), pp. 42-7.
27. UNICEF/SEGEPLAN, Análisis de la situación del niño y la mujer (Guatemala, 1992). Figures refer to cash or cash-equivalent income.
28. Carlos M. Vilas, The Sandinista Revolution (New York, 1986), chapter 2.
29. See Alexander Segovia, La implementación de los acuerdos de paz y las reformas económicas en El Salvador (San Salvador, 1994); Alvaro De Soto and Graciana del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, vol. 94 (Spring 1994), pp. 69-83; C. M. Vilas and Björn Feuer, El Salvador: El desarrollo socioeconómico reciente y el avance de los Acuerdos de Paz (Stockholm, January 1995); James K. Boyce et al., Adjustment Toward Peace: Economic Policy and Post-War Reconstruction in El Salvador (San Salvador, May 1995).
30. See Alexander Segovia, La implementación de los acuerdos de paz y las reformas económicas en El Salvador (San Salvador, 1994); Alvaro De Soto and Graciana del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, vol. 94 (Spring 1994), pp. 69-83; C. M. Vilas and Björn Feuer, El Salvador: El desarrollo socioeconómico reciente y el avance de los Acuerdos de Paz (Stockholm, January 1995); James K. Boyce et al., Adjustment Toward Peace: Economic Policy and Post-War Reconstruction in El Salvador (San Salvador, May 1995).
31. See Alexander Segovia, La implementación de los acuerdos de paz y las reformas económicas en El Salvador (San Salvador, 1994); Alvaro De Soto and Graciana del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, vol. 94 (Spring 1994), pp. 69-83; C. M. Vilas and Björn Feuer, El Salvador: El desarrollo socioeconómico reciente y el avance de los Acuerdos de Paz (Stockholm, January 1995); James K. Boyce et al., Adjustment Toward Peace: Economic Policy and Post-War Reconstruction in El Salvador (San Salvador, May 1995).
32. See Alexander Segovia, La implementación de los acuerdos de paz y las reformas económicas en El Salvador (San Salvador, 1994); Alvaro De Soto and Graciana del Castillo, 'Obstacles to Peacebuilding', Foreign Policy, vol. 94 (Spring 1994), pp. 69-83; C. M. Vilas and Björn Feuer, El Salvador: El desarrollo socioeconómico reciente y el avance de los Acuerdos de Paz (Stockholm, January 1995); James K. Boyce et al., Adjustment Toward Peace: Economic Policy and Post-War Reconstruction in El Salvador (San Salvador, May 1995).
33. Juan P. Pérez Sainz and Rafael Menjívar (eds.), Informalidad urbana en Centroamérica (Caracas, 1991). While in Nicaragua the UIS has grown consistently during the 1990s, there seems to be an opposite evolution in El Salvador, where UIS shrank from 50.8 % of EAP in 1990 to 46.6% in 1993 - although growth in formalisation refers almost exclusively to the male labour force. Renato Aguilar and Maria Rosa Renzi, Empleo y desempleo en Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); FESSEL, Informe laboral 1994 (San Salvador, 1995).
34. Juan P. Pérez Sainz and Rafael Menjívar (eds.), Informalidad urbana en Centroamérica (Caracas, 1991). While in Nicaragua the UIS has grown consistently during the 1990s, there seems to be an opposite evolution in El Salvador, where UIS shrank from 50.8 % of EAP in 1990 to 46.6% in 1993 - although growth in formalisation refers almost exclusively to the male labour force. Renato Aguilar and Maria Rosa Renzi, Empleo y desempleo en Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); FESSEL, Informe laboral 1994 (San Salvador, 1995).
35. Juan P. Pérez Sainz and Rafael Menjívar (eds.), Informalidad urbana en Centroamérica (Caracas, 1991). While in Nicaragua the UIS has grown consistently during the 1990s, there seems to be an opposite evolution in El Salvador, where UIS shrank from 50.8 % of EAP in 1990 to 46.6% in 1993 - although growth in formalisation refers almost exclusively to the male labour force. Renato Aguilar and Maria Rosa Renzi, Empleo y desempleo en Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); FESSEL, Informe laboral 1994 (San Salvador, 1995).
36. Maxwell A. Cameron, Democracy and Authoritarianism in Peru (New York, 1994); Eugenio Tironi, 'Mercado de trabajo y violencia', in Victor E. Tokman (ed.), El sector informal en América Latina. Dos décadas de análisis (Mexico City, 1995), pp. 561-88.
37. Maxwell A. Cameron, Democracy and Authoritarianism in Peru (New York, 1994); Eugenio Tironi, 'Mercado de trabajo y violencia', in Victor E. Tokman (ed.), El sector informal en América Latina. Dos décadas de análisis (Mexico City, 1995), pp. 561-88.
38. CEPAL, Remesas y economía familiar en El Salvador, Guatemala y Nicaragua. LC/MEX/R.294, 1991, and author's interviews at El Salvador's Ministry of Planning (October 1994).
39. Robert Smith, 'Los ausentes siempre presentes'. The Imagining, Making and Politics of a Transnational Community Between New York City and Ticuani, Puebla. ILAIS, Columbia University. Working Papers on Latin America, 1994.
40. Pedro Vúskoviç Céspedes, 'Los actores externos: Presencia y proyectos', Cuadernos de CRIES, vol. 19-20 (Managua, 1991).
41. Brenny Cuenca, El poder intangible. La AID y el estado salvadoreño en los años ochenta (San Salvador, 1992), pp. 27-30.
42. Raúl Benftez Manaut, 'La guerra en Centroamérica: Dinámica del proceso de militarización y tendencias', Síntesis (January-April 1989), pp. 130-57.
43. Excélsior (Mexico City), 17 April 1992, p. 2.
44. Samuel Z. Stone, La dinastía de los conquistadores (San José, 1975).
45. Marta Casáus Arzú, Guatemala: Linaje y racismo (San José, 1992).
46. Carlos M. Vilas, 'Family Affairs: Class, Lineage and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 24, no. 2 (1992), pp. 309-41.
47. Eduardo Colindres, Fundamentos económicos de la burguesía salvadoreña (San Salvador, 1977).
48. Statements by members of Guatemala's traditional families, in Casáus Arzú, Guatemala, pp. 259, 287, 289 (these interviews were conducted in the mid 1980s).
49. La Jornada (Mexico City), 12, 13 June 1993; 4, 29 November 1993; 14, 16 December 1993; Excélsior (Mexico City), 10 November 1993.
50. La Jornada (Mexico City), 12, 13 June 1993; 4, 29 November 1993; 14, 16 December 1993; Excélsior (Mexico City), 10 November 1993.
51. From 1932 to 1980 all Salvadorean presidents were army officers, while all the ministers of agriculture or economy were members of the coffee bourgeoisie. From the 1963 military coup on, all of Guatemala's ministers of economic affairs were directly appointed by CACIF (Comité Coordinator de Asociaciones Agrícolas, Comerciales, Industriales y Financieras). Sara Gordon, 'Guatemala y El Salvador: Dos regímenes de exclusion', Polémica, no. 10, January-April 1990, pp. 12-23.
52. See INFORPRESS Centroamericana, Los empresarios centroamericanos ante la crisis (Guatemala City, 1988); Gabriel Gaspar Tapia, 'La modernización de las clases dominantes centroamericanas ', in C. M. Vilas (ed.), Democracia emergente en Centroamérica (Mexico City, 1993), pp. 51-63.
53. See INFORPRESS Centroamericana, Los empresarios centroamericanos ante la crisis (Guatemala City, 1988); Gabriel Gaspar Tapia, 'La modernización de las clases dominantes centroamericanas ', in C. M. Vilas (ed.), Democracia emergente en Centroamérica (Mexico City, 1993), pp. 51-63.
54. See Rose J. Spalding, Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua. Opposition and Accommodation, 1979-1993 (Chapel Hill, 1994).
55. Our overriding purpose must be to expand and strengthen the world's community of market-based democracies', stated President Clinton in his speech at the UN General Assembly on 27 September 1993 ; National Security Advisor Anthony Lake advanced a similar concept when lecturing at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies: 'The successor to a doctrine of containment must be a strategy of enlargement - enlargement of the world's free community of market democracies ' (21 September, 1993).
56. I found a very illustrative example of this articulation of modernisation and traditionalism in several sugar estates in Escuintla, Guatemala. Over recent years a number of the largest sugar fincas in this coastal area have been improving housing and sanitary conditions for their seasonal workers, in what may be understood as a shift from a traditional approach to labour as an expense, to a capitalist focus on labour as an investment. At the same time, their owners opposed the Cerezo government's tax reform in mid 1980s, and still keep private armies watching over the estates' premises, and bribe government officials and military officers. A PAHO officer in Guatemala City told me (May 1995): 'It is easier to conduct an inspection in a military barracks than in a sugar estate', while the comparative perspective of a Ministry of Health regional official was more blunt: 'It is easier to hold up a bank, than to get into a finca'.
57. A good case for this modernisation-cum-patronage is afforded by the privatisation of El Salvador's banking system conducted by Alfredo Cristiani's ARENA government, where most of the banks were handed over to Cristiani's clique: see Francisco Sarto and Alexander Segovia, '¿Hacia dónde se dirige la privatización de la banca?', Revista de Politico Económica, vol. 12 (1992), pp. 3-25. A number of my own interviewees in San Salvador in March 1995 interpreted Armando Calderón Sol's new wave of privatisations in terms of the claims of Calderón Sol's clique who had been marginalised from the privatisation benefiting Cristiani's 'golden ring'.
58. The strategic role of US military support was openly acknowledged by General Adolfo Blandón, El Salvador's Armed Forces Chief of Staff from 1984 to 1989, in a recent interview: El Financiero (Mexico City), 11 September 1995, p. 72; La Jornada, 11 September 1995, p. 58.
59. The strategic role of US military support was openly acknowledged by General Adolfo Blandón, El Salvador's Armed Forces Chief of Staff from 1984 to 1989, in a recent interview: El Financiero (Mexico City), 11 September 1995, p. 72; La Jornada, 11 September 1995, p. 58.
60. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions; Edelberto Torres-Rivas, 'Centroamérica: Guerra, transición y democracia', CINAS. Cuadernos de Divulgación, December 1986, pp. 5-25.
61. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions; Edelberto Torres-Rivas, 'Centroamérica: Guerra, transición y democracia', CINAS. Cuadernos de Divulgación, December 1986, pp. 5-25.
62. Allan Nairn, 'De Kennedy a Reagan. El Salvador y la disciplina de la muerte', Nexos, July 1984, pp. 27-36; Michael McClintock, The American Connection. State Terror and Popular Resistance in El Salvador and Guatemala (London, 1985, two volumes) ; Comisión de la Verdad, De la locura a la esperanza. La guerra de 12 años en El Salvador. Informe de la Comisión de la Verdad para El Salvador (San Salvador, March 1993); Douglas Waller, 'Running a "School for Dictators"', Newsweek, 9 August 1993, pp. 31-3.
63. Allan Nairn, 'De Kennedy a Reagan. El Salvador y la disciplina de la muerte', Nexos, July 1984, pp. 27-36; Michael McClintock, The American Connection. State Terror and Popular Resistance in El Salvador and Guatemala (London, 1985, two volumes) ; Comisión de la Verdad, De la locura a la esperanza. La guerra de 12 años en El Salvador. Informe de la Comisión de la Verdad para El Salvador (San Salvador, March 1993); Douglas Waller, 'Running a "School for Dictators"', Newsweek, 9 August 1993, pp. 31-3.
64. Allan Nairn, 'De Kennedy a Reagan. El Salvador y la disciplina de la muerte', Nexos, July 1984, pp. 27-36; Michael McClintock, The American Connection. State Terror and Popular Resistance in El Salvador and Guatemala (London, 1985, two volumes) ; Comisión de la Verdad, De la locura a la esperanza. La guerra de 12 años en El Salvador. Informe de la Comisión de la Verdad para El Salvador (San Salvador, March 1993); Douglas Waller, 'Running a "School for Dictators"', Newsweek, 9 August 1993, pp. 31-3.
65. Allan Nairn, 'De Kennedy a Reagan. El Salvador y la disciplina de la muerte', Nexos, July 1984, pp. 27-36; Michael McClintock, The American Connection. State Terror and Popular Resistance in El Salvador and Guatemala (London, 1985, two volumes) ; Comisión de la Verdad, De la locura a la esperanza. La guerra de 12 años en El Salvador. Informe de la Comisión de la Verdad para El Salvador (San Salvador, March 1993); Douglas Waller, 'Running a "School for Dictators"', Newsweek, 9 August 1993, pp. 31-3.
66. El Financiero (Mexico City), 25 March 1995, p. 26; Richard Cohen, 'Guatemala Shame', The Washington Post, 4 April 1995, p. A23; Tim Weiner, 'C.I.A. Director Admits to Failure in Disclosing Links to Guatemala', The New York Times, 6 April 1995, pp. A1-A14; Clifford Krauss, 'Guatemala's Wat: Ideology is the Latest Excuse', The Naw York Times, 9 April 1995, p. E5 ; Allan Nairn, 'C.I.A. Death Squads', The Nation, vol. 260, no. 15, 17 April 1995, pp. 511-13.
67. El Financiero (Mexico City), 25 March 1995, p. 26; Richard Cohen, 'Guatemala Shame', The Washington Post, 4 April 1995, p. A23; Tim Weiner, 'C.I.A. Director Admits to Failure in Disclosing Links to Guatemala', The New York Times, 6 April 1995, pp. A1-A14; Clifford Krauss, 'Guatemala's Wat: Ideology is the Latest Excuse', The Naw York Times, 9 April 1995, p. E5 ; Allan Nairn, 'C.I.A. Death Squads', The Nation, vol. 260, no. 15, 17 April 1995, pp. 511-13.
68. El Financiero (Mexico City), 25 March 1995, p. 26; Richard Cohen, 'Guatemala Shame', The Washington Post, 4 April 1995, p. A23; Tim Weiner, 'C.I.A. Director Admits to Failure in Disclosing Links to Guatemala', The New York Times, 6 April 1995, pp. A1-A14; Clifford Krauss, 'Guatemala's Wat: Ideology is the Latest Excuse', The Naw York Times, 9 April 1995, p. E5 ; Allan Nairn, 'C.I.A. Death Squads', The Nation, vol. 260, no. 15, 17 April 1995, pp. 511-13.
69. El Financiero (Mexico City), 25 March 1995, p. 26; Richard Cohen, 'Guatemala Shame', The Washington Post, 4 April 1995, p. A23; Tim Weiner, 'C.I.A. Director Admits to Failure in Disclosing Links to Guatemala', The New York Times, 6 April 1995, pp. A1-A14; Clifford Krauss, 'Guatemala's Wat: Ideology is the Latest Excuse', The Naw York Times, 9 April 1995, p. E5 ; Allan Nairn, 'C.I.A. Death Squads', The Nation, vol. 260, no. 15, 17 April 1995, pp. 511-13.
70. El Financiero (Mexico City), 25 March 1995, p. 26; Richard Cohen, 'Guatemala Shame', The Washington Post, 4 April 1995, p. A23; Tim Weiner, 'C.I.A. Director Admits to Failure in Disclosing Links to Guatemala', The New York Times, 6 April 1995, pp. A1-A14; Clifford Krauss, 'Guatemala's Wat: Ideology is the Latest Excuse', The Naw York Times, 9 April 1995, p. E5 ; Allan Nairn, 'C.I.A. Death Squads', The Nation, vol. 260, no. 15, 17 April 1995, pp. 511-13.
71. See Sergio Reuben Soto, 'El papel de las ONG en la cooperación europea hacia Centroamérica', in Raul Rubén and Govert van Oord (eds.), Más alla del ajuste (San José, 1991), pp. 337-68; Peter Sollis, 'Multilateral Agencies, NGOs, and policy reform', Development in Practice, vol. 2, no. 3 (1992), pp. 163-78. Almost 75% of all development NGOs working in El Salvador from the 1960s on (or 139 out of 186) registered during the 1980s (88 or 47.3%) and in 1990-2 (51 or 27.4%). UNDP, Directorio de instituciones privadas de desarrollo de El Salvador, 1992 (San Salvador, November 1992).
72. See Sergio Reuben Soto, 'El papel de las ONG en la cooperación europea hacia Centroamérica', in Raul Rubén and Govert van Oord (eds.), Más alla del ajuste (San José, 1991), pp. 337-68; Peter Sollis, 'Multilateral Agencies, NGOs, and policy reform', Development in Practice, vol. 2, no. 3 (1992), pp. 163-78. Almost 75% of all development NGOs working in El Salvador from the 1960s on (or 139 out of 186) registered during the 1980s (88 or 47.3%) and in 1990-2 (51 or 27.4%). UNDP, Directorio de instituciones privadas de desarrollo de El Salvador, 1992 (San Salvador, November 1992).
73. See Sergio Reuben Soto, 'El papel de las ONG en la cooperación europea hacia Centroamérica', in Raul Rubén and Govert van Oord (eds.), Más alla del ajuste (San José, 1991), pp. 337-68; Peter Sollis, 'Multilateral Agencies, NGOs, and policy reform', Development in Practice, vol. 2, no. 3 (1992), pp. 163-78. Almost 75% of all development NGOs working in El Salvador from the 1960s on (or 139 out of 186) registered during the 1980s (88 or 47.3%) and in 1990-2 (51 or 27.4%). UNDP, Directorio de instituciones privadas de desarrollo de El Salvador, 1992 (San Salvador, November 1992).
74. Tom Barry and Deb Preusch, AIFL in Central America: Agents as Organizers (Albuquerque, 1986); Roy Prosterman and Jeffrey M. Riedinger, Land Reform and Democratic Development (Baltimore, 1987), esp. chapter 6.
75. Tom Barry and Deb Preusch, AIFL in Central America: Agents as Organizers (Albuquerque, 1986); Roy Prosterman and Jeffrey M. Riedinger, Land Reform and Democratic Development (Baltimore, 1987), esp. chapter 6.
76. Héctor Dada Hirezi, 'Los acuerdos de paz y la democratización', ECA, Estudios Centroamericanos, no. 558 (April 1995), pp. 367-76.
77. Breny Cuenca, El poder intangible; Carlos Sojo, La Utopía del estada mínimo. Influencia de la AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta (Managua, 1991), and La mano visible del mercado (Managua, 1992); Jorge Escoto and Manfredo Marroquín, La AID en Guatemala (Managua, 1992); Angel Saldomando, El retorno de la AID. El case de Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); Herman Rosa, AID y las transformaciones globales en El Salvador (Managua, 1993).
78. Breny Cuenca, El poder intangible; Carlos Sojo, La Utopía del estada mínimo. Influencia de la AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta (Managua, 1991), and La mano visible del mercado (Managua, 1992); Jorge Escoto and Manfredo Marroquín, La AID en Guatemala (Managua, 1992); Angel Saldomando, El retorno de la AID. El case de Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); Herman Rosa, AID y las transformaciones globales en El Salvador (Managua, 1993).
79. Breny Cuenca, El poder intangible; Carlos Sojo, La Utopía del estada mínimo. Influencia de la AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta (Managua, 1991), and La mano visible del mercado (Managua, 1992); Jorge Escoto and Manfredo Marroquín, La AID en Guatemala (Managua, 1992); Angel Saldomando, El retorno de la AID. El case de Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); Herman Rosa, AID y las transformaciones globales en El Salvador (Managua, 1993).
80. Breny Cuenca, El poder intangible; Carlos Sojo, La Utopía del estada mínimo. Influencia de la AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta (Managua, 1991), and La mano visible del mercado (Managua, 1992); Jorge Escoto and Manfredo Marroquín, La AID en Guatemala (Managua, 1992); Angel Saldomando, El retorno de la AID. El case de Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); Herman Rosa, AID y las transformaciones globales en El Salvador (Managua, 1993).
81. Breny Cuenca, El poder intangible; Carlos Sojo, La Utopía del estada mínimo. Influencia de la AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta (Managua, 1991), and La mano visible del mercado (Managua, 1992); Jorge Escoto and Manfredo Marroquín, La AID en Guatemala (Managua, 1992); Angel Saldomando, El retorno de la AID. El case de Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); Herman Rosa, AID y las transformaciones globales en El Salvador (Managua, 1993).
82. Breny Cuenca, El poder intangible; Carlos Sojo, La Utopía del estada mínimo. Influencia de la AID en Costa Rica en los años ochenta (Managua, 1991), and La mano visible del mercado (Managua, 1992); Jorge Escoto and Manfredo Marroquín, La AID en Guatemala (Managua, 1992); Angel Saldomando, El retorno de la AID. El case de Nicaragua (Managua, 1992); Herman Rosa, AID y las transformaciones globales en El Salvador (Managua, 1993).
83. Gobierno de Guatemala, Programa Sectorial de Salud (Guatemala City, May 1995), Annex III-1.
84. See J. Patrice McSherry, Civil Conflicts and the Role of the International Community: The Cases of Guatemala and El Salvador, The Ralph Bunche Institute on the United Nations' Occasional Papers Series, CUNY, New York, October 1994.
85. Eduard Baumeister, 'La agriculture centroamericana en los 8os', Polémica, voL. 14/15 (December 1991), pp. 53-79.
86. See David Stansfield, Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua (Madison, 1992); Ricardo Santamaria, 'El problema agrario y los acuerdos de paz', ECA, Estudios Centroamericanos, no. 559-60 (May-June 1995), pp. 505-17. On 31 October 1995 Salvadorean president Armande Calderón Sol announced that the implementation of the peace accords had been 'Officially accomplished' though land distribution to more than one third of the beneficiaries was still pending. La Jornada, 1 November 1995, P. 53.
87. See David Stansfield, Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua (Madison, 1992); Ricardo Santamaria, 'El problema agrario y los acuerdos de paz', ECA, Estudios Centroamericanos, no. 559-60 (May-June 1995), pp. 505-17. On 31 October 1995 Salvadorean president Armande Calderón Sol announced that the implementation of the peace accords had been 'Officially accomplished' though land distribution to more than one third of the beneficiaries was still pending. La Jornada, 1 November 1995, P. 53.
88. See David Stansfield, Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua (Madison, 1992); Ricardo Santamaria, 'El problema agrario y los acuerdos de paz', ECA, Estudios Centroamericanos, no. 559-60 (May-June 1995), pp. 505-17. On 31 October 1995 Salvadorean president Armande Calderón Sol announced that the implementation of the peace accords had been 'Officially accomplished' though land distribution to more than one third of the beneficiaries was still pending. La Jornada, 1 November 1995, P. 53.
89. The agenda of peace talks between the Guatemalan government and the insurgent URNG included this question as a central chapter. Early in 1995 both parties arrived at an Agreement on the Identity and Rights of the Indigenous Peoples (Acuerdo sobre identidad y derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas).
90. For an updated insightful discussion of these issues, see Minor Sinclair (ed.), The New Politics of Survival. Grassroots Movements in Central America (New York, 1995).
91. See Michael Crozier, Samuel Huntington and Joji Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy (New York, 1975); for subsequent discussions see Xabier Arbós and Salvador Giner, La gobernabilidad. Ciudadanía y democracia en la encrucijada mundial (Madrid, 1993).
92. See Michael Crozier, Samuel Huntington and Joji Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy (New York, 1975); for subsequent discussions see Xabier Arbós and Salvador Giner, La gobernabilidad. Ciudadanía y democracia en la encrucijada mundial (Madrid, 1993).
93. Offe argues in a similar vein with regard to social movements in Western societies: Claus Offe, 'Reflections on the Institutional Self-transformation of Movement Politics: A Tentative Stage Model', in Russell J. Dalton and Manfred Kuechler (eds.), Challenging the Political Order. New Social and Political Movements in Western Democracies (New York, 1990), pp. 232-50.
94. The Democratic Party is the joint product of Joaquín Villalobos's ERP and Eduardo Sancho's ('Ferman Cienfuegos') RN dissent, plus most of the social democratic Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR). The full text of the Pact was published in El Diario de Hoy (San Salvador) 31 May 1995. It has to be said that the commitment of former leftists to this particular brand of consensual politics has not been matched by their right-wing partners: ARENA keeps on publicly honouring D'Aubuisson's memory, while its 'Principles, Goals and By-laws' claim 'To defend our Western traditions from ideological assault and permanent aggression from international communism' as the party's primary goal. The Democratic Party decision resembles Williamson's appeal to Left organisations to embrace the economic recipes summarised by the 'Washington consensus': John Williamson, 'Democracy and the "Washington Consensus"', World Development, vol. 21, no. 8 (1993), pp. 1329-36.
95. FSLN, Para una salida nacional a la crisis (Managua, November 1994).
96. See Gabriel Gaspar Tapia, La Democracia Cristiana en Centroamérica (México City, 1993).
97. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the market. Political and economic reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge, 1991), p. 13.
98. Peter Flynn, 'Collor, Corruption, and Crisis : Time for Reflection ', journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 25, no. 2 (1993), pp. 251-71; Aldo Panfichi, 'Liderazgos autoritarios en el Perú', Debates en Sociología, vol. 18 (1993), pp. 227-47. Carlos M. Vilas, 'Entre la democracia y el neoliberalismo: Los caudillos electorales de la postermodernidad', in Silvia Dutrénit and Leonardo Váldez (eds.), El fin de siglo y los partidos políticos en América Latina (Mexico City, 1994), pp. 323-40; Atilio Boron et al., Peronismo y menemismo (Buenos Aires, 1995).
99. Peter Flynn, 'Collor, Corruption, and Crisis : Time for Reflection ', journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 25, no. 2 (1993), pp. 251-71; Aldo Panfichi, 'Liderazgos autoritarios en el Perú', Debates en Sociología, vol. 18 (1993), pp. 227-47. Carlos M. Vilas, 'Entre la democracia y el neoliberalismo: Los caudillos electorales de la postermodernidad', in Silvia Dutrénit and Leonardo Váldez (eds.), El fin de siglo y los partidos políticos en América Latina (Mexico City, 1994), pp. 323-40; Atilio Boron et al., Peronismo y menemismo (Buenos Aires, 1995).
100. Peter Flynn, 'Collor, Corruption, and Crisis : Time for Reflection ', journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 25, no. 2 (1993), pp. 251-71; Aldo Panfichi, 'Liderazgos autoritarios en el Perú', Debates en Sociología, vol. 18 (1993), pp. 227-47. Carlos M. Vilas, 'Entre la democracia y el neoliberalismo: Los caudillos electorales de la postermodernidad', in Silvia Dutrénit and Leonardo Váldez (eds.), El fin de siglo y los partidos políticos en América Latina (Mexico City, 1994), pp. 323-40; Atilio Boron et al., Peronismo y menemismo (Buenos Aires, 1995).
101. Peter Flynn, 'Collor, Corruption, and Crisis : Time for Reflection ', journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 25, no. 2 (1993), pp. 251-71; Aldo Panfichi, 'Liderazgos autoritarios en el Perú', Debates en Sociología, vol. 18 (1993), pp. 227-47. Carlos M. Vilas, 'Entre la democracia y el neoliberalismo: Los caudillos electorales de la postermodernidad', in Silvia Dutrénit and Leonardo Váldez (eds.), El fin de siglo y los partidos políticos en América Latina (Mexico City, 1994), pp. 323-40; Atilio Boron et al., Peronismo y menemismo (Buenos Aires, 1995).
102. Ricardo Córdova Macías, El Salvador en transición: Elproceso de paz, las elecciones de 1994 y los retos de la gobernabilidad democrática (San Salvador, 1994); Jack Spence et al., El Salvador: Elections of the Century (Cambridge, MA, 1994).
103. Ricardo Córdova Macías, El Salvador en transición: Elproceso de paz, las elecciones de 1994 y los retos de la gobernabilidad democrática (San Salvador, 1994); Jack Spence et al., El Salvador: Elections of the Century (Cambridge, MA, 1994).
104. Actual absentionism is even higher than reflected in figures if referred to the overall potential voters and not just to registered ones.
105. IADB, Economic and Social Progress in Latin America. 1994 report (Washington, D.C., 1994).
106. Gobierno de Costa Rica, Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 1994-1998. Diagnóstico y estrategia (San José, 1994), table 3; Gobierno de la República de Nicaragua, Estudio sobre el gasto social, 1990-1994 (Managua, November 1994), table 6.
107. Gobierno de Costa Rica, Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 1994-1998. Diagnóstico y estrategia (San José, 1994), table 3; Gobierno de la República de Nicaragua, Estudio sobre el gasto social, 1990-1994 (Managua, November 1994), table 6.
108. Which fits pretty well with World Bank's claim on the need to insulate economic policy-makers from civil society's short-sighted particularistic, selfish messing around: World Bank, The East Asian Miracle. Economic Growth and Public Policy (Oxford, 1993).
109. Take for instance the following case I witnessed in May 1995 during an evaluation of Central American health reforms. The health centre in E.J.L. (a rural municipality in north-western Nicaragua with some 10,000 inhabitants, 85-90% of them living in poverty) participated in a pilot experience of decentralisation and health community management implemented by the Nicaraguan government on behalf of the World Bank's structural adjustment conditionalitics. According to a particular conception of 'self management', the community is supposed to pay for most of the health services - which in any case are very basic. Nicaragua's Ministry of Health's monthly contribution to the centre's pharmaceuticals budget amounts to 12,000 córdobas, or 1.20 córdobas per person per month (less than 20 US cents). As could be expected, the entire preoccupation of the nurse running the centre was devoted to cost/benefit analysis and management creativity to stretch those twenty cents out as much as she could. It was hard for evaluators to detect the presence of a health worker beyond her efficientist discourse. In November 1995 a deadly leptospirosis epidemic occurred in that same region and rapidly spread over the border to Honduras; Nicaragua's Health Ministry's core recommendation to the population was to use cats, since the main disease vector is rats. The Ministry's exhausted budget prevented it from proposing other than symbolic responses.
110. See World Bank, The Challenge of Poverty Alleviation (Washington, D.C., 1993; Report 12315-ES); IADB, Socioeconomic Report: El Salvdor (Washington, D.C., 1993; Report GN-1800).
111. See World Bank, The Challenge of Poverty Alleviation (Washington, D.C., 1993; Report 12315-ES); IADB, Socioeconomic Report: El Salvdor (Washington, D.C., 1993; Report GN-1800).
112. Trevor Evans, 'Ajuste estructural y sector público en Centroamérica y el Caribe', in T. Evans (ed.), La transformación neoliberal del sector público (Managua, 1995), pp. 1-47.
113. See Florentino Moreno Marín, Infancia y guerra en Centroamerica (San José, 1991); Anna Fernández Poncela, 'Desempleo, angustia y violencia: Las mujeres de Nicaragua', Estudios Ecuménicos, vol. 35 (July-September 1993), pp. 42-5. On the persistence of death squads in El Salvador, see Informe del Grupo Conjunto para la investigation de grupos armadas ilegales con motivation político (San Salvador, July 1994).
114. See Florentino Moreno Marín, Infancia y guerra en Centroamerica (San José, 1991); Anna Fernández Poncela, 'Desempleo, angustia y violencia: Las mujeres de Nicaragua', Estudios Ecuménicos, vol. 35 (July-September 1993), pp. 42-5. On the persistence of death squads in El Salvador, see Informe del Grupo Conjunto para la investigation de grupos armadas ilegales con motivation político (San Salvador, July 1994).
115. See Florentino Moreno Marín, Infancia y guerra en Centroamerica (San José, 1991); Anna Fernández Poncela, 'Desempleo, angustia y violencia: Las mujeres de Nicaragua', Estudios Ecuménicos, vol. 35 (July-September 1993), pp. 42-5. On the persistence of death squads in El Salvador, see Informe del Grupo Conjunto para la investigation de grupos armadas ilegales con motivation político (San Salvador, July 1994).
116. See Deborah Levenson, 'Las "maras": Violencia juvenil de masas', Polémica, vol. 7 (January-April 1989), pp. 2-12; Amnesty International, Guatemala: Las niñes de la calle (Madrid, 1990).
117. See Deborah Levenson, 'Las "maras": Violencia juvenil de masas', Polémica, vol. 7 (January-April 1989), pp. 2-12; Amnesty International, Guatemala: Las niñes de la calle (Madrid, 1990).
118. Francisco Weffort, Qual democracia? (São Paulo, 1992), pp. 31-2.
119. Rodolfo Stavenhagen and Diego Irurralde (eds.), Entre la ley y la costumbre. El derecbo consuetudinario indígena en América Latina (México, 1990); Carlos M. Vilas, State, Class and Ethnicity in Nicaragua (Boulder, 1989), chapter 5 ; Mario Rizo Zeledón, 'Etnicidad, legalidad y demandas de las comunidades indigenas del none centro y del pacifico de Nicaragua', in German Romero (ed.), Persistencia indigena en Nicaragua (Managua, 1991), pp. 59-103.
120. Rodolfo Stavenhagen and Diego Irurralde (eds.), Entre la ley y la costumbre. El derecbo consuetudinario indígena en América Latina (México, 1990); Carlos M. Vilas, State, Class and Ethnicity in Nicaragua (Boulder, 1989), chapter 5 ; Mario Rizo Zeledón, 'Etnicidad, legalidad y demandas de las comunidades indigenas del none centro y del pacifico de Nicaragua', in German Romero (ed.), Persistencia indigena en Nicaragua (Managua, 1991), pp. 59-103.
121. Rodolfo Stavenhagen and Diego Irurralde (eds.), Entre la ley y la costumbre. El derecbo consuetudinario indígena en América Latina (México, 1990); Carlos M. Vilas, State, Class and Ethnicity in Nicaragua (Boulder, 1989), chapter 5 ; Mario Rizo Zeledón, 'Etnicidad, legalidad y demandas de las comunidades indigenas del none centro y del pacifico de Nicaragua', in German Romero (ed.), Persistencia indigena en Nicaragua (Managua, 1991), pp. 59-103.
122. According to UN sources in El Salvador, by mid-1994 the new 'National Civil Police', a security body created after the Peace Accords, had turned into the main source of human rights violations: Vilas and Feuer, El Salvador.
123. James Painter, Guatemala: False Hope, False Freedom (London, 1987), pp. 47-51.
124. Luis Humberto Guzmán, Politicos de uniforme (Managua, 1992) ; Xavier Reyes Alba, 'Un general sin laberinto', El Dia Latinoamericano, no. 116 (Mexico City), 28 August 1993, P. 5.
125. Luis Humberto Guzmán, Politicos de uniforme (Managua, 1992) ; Xavier Reyes Alba, 'Un general sin laberinto', El Dia Latinoamericano, no. 116 (Mexico City), 28 August 1993, P. 5.
126. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy. A Report of the Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism, and International Operations (Washington, O.C., 1989); Asamblea Legislative de la Republica de Costa Rica, Informe de la Comision sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); ibid., Segundo Informe de la Comisión sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); Holly Sklar, Washington's War on Nicaragua (Boston, 1989); Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics. Drugs, Armies and the CIA in Central America (Berkeley, 1991).
127. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy. A Report of the Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism, and International Operations (Washington, O.C., 1989); Asamblea Legislative de la Republica de Costa Rica, Informe de la Comision sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); ibid., Segundo Informe de la Comisión sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); Holly Sklar, Washington's War on Nicaragua (Boston, 1989); Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics. Drugs, Armies and the CIA in Central America (Berkeley, 1991).
128. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy. A Report of the Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism, and International Operations (Washington, O.C., 1989); Asamblea Legislative de la Republica de Costa Rica, Informe de la Comision sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); ibid., Segundo Informe de la Comisión sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); Holly Sklar, Washington's War on Nicaragua (Boston, 1989); Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics. Drugs, Armies and the CIA in Central America (Berkeley, 1991).
129. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy. A Report of the Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism, and International Operations (Washington, O.C., 1989); Asamblea Legislative de la Republica de Costa Rica, Informe de la Comision sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); ibid., Segundo Informe de la Comisión sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); Holly Sklar, Washington's War on Nicaragua (Boston, 1989); Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics. Drugs, Armies and the CIA in Central America (Berkeley, 1991).
130. US Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Drugs, Law Enforcement, and Foreign Policy. A Report of the Subcommittee on Narcotics, Terrorism, and International Operations (Washington, O.C., 1989); Asamblea Legislative de la Republica de Costa Rica, Informe de la Comision sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); ibid., Segundo Informe de la Comisión sobre el Narcotráfico (San José, 1989); Holly Sklar, Washington's War on Nicaragua (Boston, 1989); Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics. Drugs, Armies and the CIA in Central America (Berkeley, 1991).
131. Antonio Gramsci, Il materialismo storico e la filosofia di Benedetto Croce (Roma, 1977), pp. 47-8.
132. Eric R. Wolf, 'Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies', in M. Banton (ed.), The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies (London, 1966), pp. 1-22; see also Vilas, Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes, chapter 1. Most discussion on 'exporting democracy' tends to ignore this cultural dimension of politics - thus reproducing at a literary level US foreign policy failures. Terry Karl, 'Exporting Democracy...' offers a stimulating alternative approach. See also Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation. Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham, 1994).
133. Eric R. Wolf, 'Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies', in M. Banton (ed.), The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies (London, 1966), pp. 1-22; see also Vilas, Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes, chapter 1. Most discussion on 'exporting democracy' tends to ignore this cultural dimension of politics - thus reproducing at a literary level US foreign policy failures. Terry Karl, 'Exporting Democracy...' offers a stimulating alternative approach. See also Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent
134. Eric R. Wolf, 'Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies', in M. Banton (ed.), The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies (London, 1966), pp. 1-22; see also Vilas, Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes, chapter 1. Most discussion on 'exporting democracy' tends to ignore this cultural dimension of politics - thus reproducing at a literary level US foreign policy failures. Terry Karl, 'Exporting Democracy...' offers a stimulating alternative approach. See also Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation. Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham, 1994).
135. Howard Wiarda's many books offer the crudest version of the argument; for more articulated elaborations see John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1985); John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson, 'Paths to Democracy and the Political Culture of Costa Rica, Mexico, and Nicaragua', in Larry Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, 1994), pp. 99-130. Yet the most sophisticated versions of culturalist hypothesis have not gone beyond the paths opened up and explored by the classic works of Werner Sombart, Max Weber or R. H. Tawney: see for instance Ronald Inglehart, 'The Renaissance of Political Culture', American Political Science Review, vol. 82 (November 1988), pp. 1203-30.
136. Howard Wiarda's many books offer the crudest version of the argument; for more articulated elaborations see John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1985); John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson, 'Paths to Democracy and the Political Culture of Costa Rica, Mexico, and Nicaragua', in Larry Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, 1994), pp. 99-130. Yet the most sophisticated versions of culturalist hypothesis have not gone beyond the paths opened up and explored by the classic works of Werner Sombart, Max Weber or R. H. Tawney: see for instance Ronald Inglehart, 'The Renaissance of Political Culture', American Political Science Review, vol. 82 (November 1988), pp. 1203-30.
137. Howard Wiarda's many books offer the crudest version of the argument; for more articulated elaborations see John A. Peeler, Latin American Democracies: Colombia, Costa Rica and Venezuela (Chapel Hill, 1985); John A. Booth and Mitchell A. Seligson, 'Paths to Democracy and the Political Culture of Costa Rica, Mexico, and Nicaragua', in Larry Diamond (ed.), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries (Boulder, 1994), pp. 99-130. Yet the most sophisticated versions of culturalist hypothesis have not gone beyond the paths opened up and explored by the classic works of Werner Sombart, Max Weber or R. H. Tawney: see for instance Ronald Inglehart, 'The Renaissance of Political Culture', American Political Science Review, vol. 82 (November 1988), pp. 1203-30.
138. Nevertheless this outdated culturalist reductionism may be approached from a broader perspective than that of its proponents: emphasis on the protestant, individualistic or rationalist components of liberal democracy in some way point to the cultural peak of a broad range of socioeconomic as well as political preconditions resulting from a particular historical development which set the foundations of that particular political regime - such as state building, development of civil society, domestic regulation of core economic processes as well as appropriation of foreign trade surpluses, etc. See Carlos Franco, 'Visión de la democracia y crisis del régimen', Nueva Sociedad, no. 128 (November-December 1993), pp. 50-61.
139. Karl Marx, La ideología alemana (Montevideo, 1968).
140. Pillories and other instruments for punishment were still common in Guatemalan estates as recently as the 1970s (personal communication from Guatemalan lawyer and political leader Catalina Soberanis, September 1995), while jus prime nocte has not been entirely uprooted from landlord culture either there or in El Salvador.
141. Claus Offe, '"Ingobernabilidad". Sobre el renacimiento de teorías conservadoras de la crisis', in C. Offe, Partidos politicos y nuevos movimientos sociales (Madrid, 1988), pp. 27-53; see also Marco Aurelio Nogueira, 'Gobernabilidad democrática progresiva', Análisis politico, vol. 25 (May-August 1995), pp. 55-68.
142. Claus Offe, '"Ingobernabilidad". Sobre el renacimiento de teorías conservadoras de la crisis', in C. Offe, Partidos politicos y nuevos movimientos sociales (Madrid, 1988), pp. 27-53; see also Marco Aurelio Nogueira, 'Gobernabilidad democrática progresiva', Análisis politico, vol. 25 (May-August 1995), pp. 55-68.
143. Edelberto Torres-Rivas, 'Centroamérica: La transición autoritaria hacia la democracia', Polémica, vol. 4 (January 1988), pp. 2-13.
144. See Carlos M. Vilas, 'Nicaragua: A Revolution that fell from the grace of the people', in Ralph Miliband and Leo Panitch (eds.), The Socialist Register 1991 (London, 1991), PP- 300-19.
145. Przcworski discusses democracy as 'a contingent outcome of social conflict', while Bleany and Kamal Pasha argue that under particular circumstances the activation of civil society may lead to rising authoritarianism. Adam Przeworski, 'Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Social Conflicts', in Jon Elster and Rune Slagstad (eds.), Constitutionalism and Democracy (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 59-80; David L. Blaney and Mustapha Kamal Pasha, 'Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: Ambiguities and Historical Possibilities', Studies in Comparative International Development, vol. 28, no. 1 (1993), pp. 3-24.
146. Przcworski discusses democracy as 'a contingent outcome of social conflict', while Bleany and Kamal Pasha argue that under particular circumstances the activation of civil society may lead to rising authoritarianism. Adam Przeworski, 'Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Social Conflicts', in Jon Elster and Rune Slagstad (eds.), Constitutionalism and Democracy (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 59-80; David L. Blaney and Mustapha Kamal Pasha, 'Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: Ambiguities and Historical Possibilities', Studies in Comparative International Development, vol. 28, no. 1 (1993), pp. 3-24.