Quantitative SPECT: Recent developments in detector response, attenuation and scatter compensation techniques

Physica Medica

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 101-117

  Zaidi, H ^a  

^a GENEVA UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

quantitative attenuation; scatter; SPECT

Indexed keywords

IMAGING; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY;

EID: 0029902986     PISSN: 11201797     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Parker JA. Quantitative SPECT: basic theoretical considerations. Sem Nucl Med 1989: 19; 3-12.
2. Brooks RA and Dichiro G. Principles of computed assisted tomography (CAT) in radiographic and radioisotopic imaging. Phys Med Biol 1976: 5; 689-732.
3. 111In planar image quantification. Med Phys 1988: 15; 853-861.
4. Jaszczak RJ and Coleman RE. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): principles and instrumentation. Invest Radiol 1985: 20; 897-910.
5. Larsson SA. Gamma camera emission tomography: development and properties of a multi-sectional emission computed tomography system. Acta Radiol Suppl 1980: 363; 1-75.
6. Murphy PH. Quantitative emission tomography. J Nucl Med 1987: 5; 922-923.
7. Jaszczak RJ, Coleman RE, Whitehead FR. Physical factors affecting quantitative measurements using camera-based single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1981: 28; 69-80.
8. Blockland KAK, Reiber HC, Pauwels EKJ. Quantitative analysis in single photon emission tomography (SPET). Eur J Nucl Med 1992: 19; 47-61.
9. Tsui BMW, Gullberg GT. The geometric transfer function for cone and fan beam collimators. Phys Med Biol 1990: 34; 81-93.
10. Datz FL, Gullberg GT, Zeng GL, Tung C-H, Christian PE, Welch A, Clack R. Application of convergent-beam collimation and simultaneous transmission emission tomography to cardiac single-photon emission computed tomography. Sem Nucl Med 1994: XXIV; 17-37.
11. Rosenthal MS, Cullom J, Hawkins W, Moore SC, Tsui BMW nas Yester M. Quantitative SPECT imaging: A review and recommendations by the Focus committee of the Society of Nuclear Medicine Computer Instrumentation Council. J Nucl Med 1995: 36; 1489-1513.
12. Huang SC, Hoffman EJ, Phelps Me, Kuhl DE. Quantitation in PET: Effects of inaccurate attenuation correction. J Comp Ass Tom 1979: 3; 309-315.
13. Floyd CE, Jaszczak RJ, Harris CC and Coleman RE. Energy and spatial distribution of multiple order Compton scatter in SPECT: a Monte Carlo investigation. Phys Med Biol 1984: 10; 1217-1230.
14. Lowry CA and Cooper MJ. The problem of Compton scattering in emission tomography: a measurement of its spatial distribution. Phys Med Biol 1987: 9; 1187-1191.
15. Singh M, Horne C. Use of a germanium detector to optimize scatter correction in SPECT. J Nucl Med 1987: 28; 1853-1860.
16. Loevinger R, Budinger TF, Watson EE. MIRD Primer for absorbed dose calculations. Revised edition. The Society for Nuclear Medicine Inc. New York 1991.
17. Zaidi H. SPECTPLAN: A quantitative SPECT imaging-based 3-D dosimetry methodology for use in radioimmunotherapy treatment planning. Eur J Nucl Med (Supplement) 1994: 76.
18. Sgouros G, Barest G, Thekkumthala J et al. Treatment planning for internal radionuclide therapy: three-dimensional dosimetry for nonuniformly distributed radionuclides. J Nucl Med 1990: 31; 1884-1891.
19. Giap HB, Macey DJ, Podoloff DA. Development of a SPECT-based three-dimensional treatment planning system for radioimmunotherapy. J Nucl Med 1995: 36; 1885-1894.
20. Mas J, Ben Younes R, Bidet R. Improvement of quantification in SPECT studies by scatter and attenuation compensation. Eur J Nucl Med 1989: 15; 351-356.
21. Ben Younes R, Mas J, Pousse A et al. Introducing simultaneous spatial resolution and attenuation correction after scatter removal in SPECT imaging. Nucl Med Commun 1991: 12; 1031-1043.
22. Boulfelfel D, Rangayyan RM, Hahn LJ, Koiber R. Prereconstruction restoration of myocardial single photon emission computed tomography images. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1992: 11; 336-341.
23. Xia W, Lewitt RM, Edholm PR. Fourier correction for spatially variant collimator bluring in SPECT. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1995: 14; 100-115.
24. Zeng GL, Gullberg GT. Frequency domain implementation of the three-dimensional geometric point response correction in SPECT imaging. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 1992: 39; 1444-1453.
25. Frey EC, Ju Z-W, and Tsui BMW. A fast projector-backprojector pair modeling the asymmetric, spatially varying scatter response function for scatter compensation in SPECT imaging. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1993: 40; 1192-1197.
26. Boulfelfel D, Rangayyan RM, Hahn LJ, Koiber R. Three-dimensional restoration of single photon emission computed tomography images. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1994: 41; 1746-1754.
27. Pan T-S, Luo D-S, King MA. Design of an efficient 3-D projector and backprojector pair for SPECT. Proceedings of the International Meeting on Fully Three-dimensional Reconstruction in Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Aix-les-Bains, France 1995; 181-185.
28. Tsui BMW, Hu HB, Gilland DR et al. Implementation of simultaneous attenuation and detector response correction in SPECT. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1988: 35; 778-783.
29. Formiconi AR, Pupi A, Passeri A. Compensation of spatial system response in SPECT with conjugate gradient reconstruction technique. Phys Med Biol 1989: 34; 69-84.
30. Zeng GL, Gullberg GT. Tsui BMW et al. Three-dimensional iterative reconstruction algorithms with attenuation and geometric point response correction. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 1991: 38; 693-702.
31. Liang Z, Turkington TG, Gilland DR, Jaszczak RJ, Coleman RE. Simultaneous compensation for attenuation, scatter and detector response for SPECT reconstruction in three dimensions. Phys Med Biol 1992: 37; 587-603.
32. Glick SJ, Penney BC, King MA, and Byrne CL. Non-iterative compensation for the distance-dependent detector response and photon attenuation in SPECT imaging. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1994: 13; 363-374.
33. Lewitt RM, Edholm PR, Xia W. Fourier method for correction of depth-dependent collimator blurring. Proc SPIE 1989: 1092; 232-243.
34. Hawkins WG, Yang N-C, and Leichner PK. Validation of the circular harmonic transform (CHT) for quantitative SPECT. J Nucl Med 1991: 32; 141-150.
35. Soares EJ, Byrne CL, Glick SJ, Appledorn CR, King MA. Implementation and evaluation of an analytical solution to the photon attenuation and nonstationary resolution reconstruction problem in SPECT. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 1993: 40; 1231-1237.
36. Gullberg GT, Malko JA, Eisner RL. Boundary definition. In Emission computed tomography - Current trends. The Society of Nuclear Medicine. New York 1983: 33-53.
37. Hosoba M, Wani H, Toyama H et al. Automated body contour detection in SPECT: effects on quantitative studies. J Nucl Med 1991: 27; 1184-1191.
38. Ben Younes R, Mas J, and Bidet R. Fully automated detection algorithm: the preliminary step for scatter and attenuation compensation in SPECT. Eur J Nucl Med 1988: 14; 586-589.
39. Macey DJ, DeNardo GL, DeNardo SJ. Comparison of three boundary detection methods for SPECT using Compton scattered photons. J Nucl Med 1988: 29; 203-207.
40. Herbert TJ, Gopal SS, Murphy P. Fully automated optimization algorithm for determinig the 3-D patient contour from photopeak projection data in SPECT. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1995: 14; 122-131.
41. Manglos SH, Jaszczak RJ, Floyd CE et al. Nonisotropic attenuation in SPECT: Phantom tests of quantitative effects and compensation techniques. J Nucl Med 1987: 28; 1584-1591.
42. Fleming JS. A technique for using CT images in attenuation correction and quantification in SPECT. Nucl Med Commun 1989: 10; 83-97.
43. Rowell NP, Glaholm J, Flower MA et al. Anatomically derived attenuation coefficients for use in quantitative single photon emission tomography studies of the thorax. Eur J Nucl Med 1992: 19; 36-40.
44. Bailey DL, Hutton BF and Walker PJ. Improved SPECT using simultaneous emission and transmission Tomography. J Nucl Med 1987: 28; 844-851.
45. Tsui BMW, Gullberg GT, Edgerton ER. Correction of non-uniform attenuation in cardiac SPECT imaging. J Nucl Med 1989: 30; 497-507.
46. Ljungberg M. Development and evaluation of attenuation and scatter correction techniques for SPECT using the Monte Carlo method. PhD Thesis, Lund University, Sweden, 1990.
47. Almquist H, Palmer J, Ljungberg M, Wollmer P, Jonson B, and Strand S-E. Quantitative SPECT by correction of the projection set using transmission data: evaluation of a method. Eur J Nucl Med 1990; 16: 587-594.
48. Greer KL, Harris CC, Jaczszak RJ et al. Transmission computed tomography data acquisition with a SPECT system. J Nucl. Med Tech 1987: 15; 53-56.
49. Malko JA, Van Hertuum RL, Gullberg GT et al. SPECT liver imaging using an iterative attenuation algorithm and an external flood source. J Nucl Med 1986: 27; 701-705.
50. Tung C-H, Gullberg GT, Zeng GL, Christian PE, Datz FL, Morgan HT. Non-uniform attenuation corection using simultaneous transmission and emission converging tomography. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 1992: 39; 1134-1143.
51. Hasegawa BH, Lang TF, Brown JK, Gingold EL, Reilly SM, Blankespoor SC, Stephen C, Liew SC, Tsui BMW, Ramanathan C. Object-specific attemuation correction of SPECT with correlated dual-energy X-Ray CT. IEEE Trans Nuc Sci 1993: 40; 1242-1252.
52. Manglos SH, Bassano DA, Duxbury CE, Capone RB. Attenuation map for SPECT determined using cone-beam transmission computed tomography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1990: 37; 600-608.
53. Manglos SM. Truncation artifact suppression in cone-beam radionuclide transmission CT using maximum likelihood techniques: evaluation with human subjects. Phys Med Biol 1992: 37; 549-562.
54. Welch A, Gullberg GT, Christian PE, Datz FL. A comparison of Gd/Tc versus Tc/Tl simultaneous transmission and emission imaging using both single and triple detector fan-beam SPECT systems. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1994: 41; 2779-2786.
55. Ficaro EP, Fessler JA, Rogers WL, Schwaiger M. Comparison of Americium-241and Technetium-99m as transmission sources for attenuation correction of Thallium-201 SPECT imaging of the heart. J Nucl Med 1994: 35; 652-663.
56. Jaszczak RJ, Gilland DR, Hanson MW, Jang S, Greer KL, Coleman RE. Fast transmission CT for determining attenuation maps using a collimated line source, rotatable air-copper-lead attenuators and fan-beam collimation. J Nucl Med 1993: 34; 1577-1586.
57. Murase K, Itoh H, Mogami H et al. A comparative study of attenuation correction algorithms in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Eur J Nucl Med 1987: 13; 55-62.
58. Budinger TF, Gullberg GT and Huesman R. Emission computed tomography: In: Topics in Applied Physics. New York. Springer Verlag 1979; 147-246.
59. Sorenson JA. Quantitative measurement of radioactivity in vivo by whole-body counting. Instrumentation in Nuclear Medicine. New York. Academic Press 1974: 2; 311-348.
60. Tretiak OJ, Metz CE. The exponential Radon transform. SIAM J Appl Math 1980: 39; 341-354.
61. Metz CE, Pan X. A unified analysis of exact methods of inverting the 2-D exponential Radon transform, with implications for noise control in SPECT. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1995: 14; 643-658.
62. Bellini S, Piacentini M, Cafforio C, Rocca P. Compensation of tissue absorption in emission tomography. IEEE Trans ASSP 1979: 27; 213-218.
63. Tanaka E, Toyama H and Murayama H. Convolutional image reconstruction for quantitative single photon emission computed tomography. Phys Med Biol 1984: 29; 1489-1500.
64. Chang LT. A method for attenuation correction in radionuclide computed tomography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1978: 25; 638-643.
65. Liang Z. Compensation for attenuation, scatter, and detector response in SPECT reconstruction via iterative FBP methods. Med Phys 1993: 20; 1097-1106.
66. Budinger TF and Gullberg GT. Three-dimensional reconstruction in nuclear medicine emission imaging. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1974: 21; 2-20.
67. Gustafson DE, Berggren MJ, Singh M, Dewanjee MK. Computed transaxial imaging using single gamma emitters. Radiology 1978: 129; 187-194.
68. Walters TE, Simon W, Chesler DA, Correia JA. Attenuation correction in gamma emission computed tomography. J Comp Assist Tomogr 1981: 5; 89-94.
69. Soussaline FR, Cao A, Le Coq A et al. An analytical approach to single photon emission computed tomography with the attenuation effect. Eur J Nucl Med 1982: 7; 487-493.
70. Axelsson B, Israelsson A, Larsson SA. Studies of a technique for attenuation correction in single photon emission computed tomography. Phys Med Biol 1987: 32; 737-749.
71. Morozumi T, Nakajima M, Ogawa K, Yuta S. Attenuation correction methods using the information of attenuation distribution for single photon emission CT. Med Imag Tech 1984: 2; 20-28.
72. Tsui BMW, Zhao XD, Frey EL, Gullberg GT. Comparison between ML-EM and WLS-CG algorithms for SPECT image reconstruction. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1991: 38; 1766-1772.
73. Levitan E, Herman GT. A maximum a posteriori probability expectation maximization algorithm for image reconstruction in emission tomography. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1987: 6; 185-192.
74. Murase K, Tanada S, Higashino H et al. A unified computer program for assessment of attenuation correction and data acquisition methods in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Eur J Nucl Med 1989: 15; 248-253.
75. Tan P, Bailey DL, Meikle SR, Eberl S, Hutton BF. A scanning line source for simultaneous emission and transmission measurements in SPECT. J Nucl Med 1993: 34; 1752-1760.
76. Rosenthal MS and Henry LJ. Scattering in uniform media. Phys Med Biol 1990: 2; 265-274.
77. King MA, Glick SJ, Penney BC et al. Interactive visual optimization of SPECT prereconstruction filtering. J Nucl Med 1987: 28; 1192-1198.
78. King MA, Schwinger RB, and Penney BC. Variation of the count-dependent Metz filter with imaging system modulation transfer function. Med Phys 1986: 13; 139-149.
79. Yanch JC, Flower MA and Webb S. Improved quantification of radionuclide uptake using a deconvolution and windowed subtraction techniques for scatter compensation in single photon emission computed tomography. Med Phys 1990: 17; 1011-1022.
80. Gilland DR, Tsui BMW, McCartney WH, Perry JR, Berg J. Determination of the optimum filter function for SPECT imaging. J Nucl Med 1988: 29; 643-650.
81. King MA, Schwinger RB, Doherty PW and Penney BC. Two-dimensional filtering of SPECT images using the Metz and Wiener filters. J Nucl Med 1984: 25; 1234-1240.
82. Madsen MT and Park CH. Enhancement of SPECT images by Fourier filtering the projection image set. J Nucl Med 1985: 26; 395-402.
83. Koral KF, Clinthorne NH, and Rogers WL. Improving emission computed tomography quantification by Compton scatter rejection through offset windows. Nucl Inst Meth in Phys Res 1986: A242; 610-614.
84. King MA, Coleman M, Penney BC, Glick SJ. Activity quantitation in SPECT: a study of prereconstruction Metz filtering and use of the scatter degradation factor. Med Phys 1991: 18; 184-189.
85. Harris CC, Greer KL, Jaszczak RJ et al. Tc-99m attenuation coefficients in water-filled phantoms determined with gamma cameras. Med Phys 1984: 11; 681-685.
86. Wu RK, Siegel JA. Absolute quantification of radioactivity using the builup factor. Med Phys 1984: 11; 189-192.
87. Jaszczak RJ, Greer KL, Floyd CE, Harris CC, Coleman RE. Improved SPECT quantification using compensation for scattered photons. J Nucl Med 1984: 25; 893-900.
88. Todd-Pokropek AE, Clarke G, and Marsh R. Preprocessing of SPECT data as a precursor for attenuation correction. In: Deconinck F, ed Information Processing in medical imaging. Bruxelles: Martinius Nijoff Publishers. 1983: 130-150.
89. Ogawa K, Harata Y, Ichihara T, Kubo A, Hashimoto S. A practical method for position-dependent Compton-scattered correction in single photon emission CT. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1991: 10; 408-412.
90. Logan KW, McFarland WD. Single photon scatter compensation by photopeak energy distribution analysis. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1991: 11; 161-164.
91. King MA, Hademenos GJ, and Glick SJ. A dual-photopeak window method for scatter correction. J Nucl Med 1992: 33; 605-612.
92. Pretorious PH, Van Rensburg AJ, Van Aswegen A et al. The channel ratio method for scatter correction for radionuclide image quantitation. J Nucl Med 1993: 34; 330-335.
93. Koral KF, Wang X, Rogers WL et al. SPECT Compton-scattering correction by analysis of energy spectra. J Nucl Med 1988: 29; 195-202.
94. Halama JR, Henkin RE, Friend LE. Gamma camera radionuclide images: improved contrast with energy-weighted acquisition. Radiology 1988: 169; 533-538.
95. Hamill JJ, DeVito RP. Scatter reduction with energy-weighted acquisition. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1989: 36; 1334-1339.
96. Gagnon D, Todd-Pokropek A, Arsenault A, Dupras G. Introduction to holospectral imaging in nuclear medicine for scatter subtraction. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1989: 8; 245-250.
97. Wang X, Koral KF. A regularized deconvolution-fitting method for Compton scatter correction in SPECT. IEEE Trans Med Imag 1992: 11; 351-360.
98. Mas J, Hannequin P, Ben Younes R, Bellaton B and Bidet R. Scatter correction in planar imaging and SPECT by constrained factor analysis of dynamic structures (FADS). Phys Med Biol 1990: 11; 1451-1465.
99. Buvat I, Benali H, Frouin F, Bazin JP, Di Paola R. Target apex-seeking in factor analysis of medical image sequences. Phys Med Biol 1993: 38; 123-138.
100. Egbert SD, May RS. An integral-transport method for Compton-scatter correction in radionuclide computed tomography. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1980: 27; 543-548.
101. Floyd CE, Jaszczak RJ, Greer KL and Coleman RE. Inverse Monte Carlo as a unified reconstruction algorithm for ECT. J Nucl Med 1986: 27; 1577-1585.
102. Frey EC and Tsui BMW. Parametrization of the scatter function in SPECT imaging using Monte Carlo simulation. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1990: 7; 1308-1315.
103. Beekman F. Fully 3D SPECT reconstruction with object shape dependent scatter compensation. PhD Thesis. Utrecht University. The Netherlands, 1995.
104. Axelsson B, Msaki P, and Israelsson A. Subtraction of Compton scattered photons in single photon emission tomography. J Nucl Med 1984: 25; 490-494.
105. Msaki P, Axelsson B, Dahl CM, and Larsson CA. A generalized scatter correction method in SPECT using point scatter distribution functions. J Nucl Med 1987: 28; 1861-1869.
106. Floyd CE, Jaszczak RJ, Greer KL et al. Deconvolution of Compton scatter in SPECT. J Nucl Med 1985: 26; 403-408.
107. Mukai T, Links JM, Douglass KH and Wagner HN. Scatter correction in SPECT using non-uniform attenuation data. Phys Med Biol 1988: 33; 1129-1140.
108. Rosenthal MS, Henry LJ. Initial evaluation of a Gaussian scatter correction technique. Int J Radiat Appl Instrum, Part A [Appl Radiat Isot] 1992: 43; 1123-1128.
109. Meikle SR, Hutton BF, Bailey DL. A transmission-dependent method for scatter correction in SPECT. J Nucl Med 1994: 35; 360-367.
110. Welch A, Gullberg GT, Christian PE, Datz FL, and Morgan HT. A transmission map-based scatter correction technique for SPECT in inhomogeneous media. Med Phys 1995: 22; 1627-1653.
111. Walrand SHM, van Elmbt LR, Pauwels S. Quantitation in SPECT using an effective model of the scattering. Phys Med Biol 1994: 39; 719.
112. Ogawa K, Nishizaki N. Accurate scatter compensation using neural networks in radionuclide imaging. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1993: 40; 1020-1025.
113. Koral KF, Swailem FM, Buchbinder S et al. SPECT dual-energy window Compton correction: scatter multiplier required for quantification. J Nucl Med 1990: 31; 90-98.
114. Ljungberg M, King MA, Hademenos GJ and Strand S-E. Comparison of four scatter correction methods using Monte Carlo simulated source distributions. J Nucl Med 1994: 35; 143-151.
115. Buvat I, Rodriguez-Villafuerte M, ToddPokropek A, Benali H, Di Paola R. Comparative Assessment of nine scatter correction methods based on spectral analysis using Monte Carlo simulations. J Nucl Med 1995: 36; 1476-1488.
116. Denardo GL, Macey DJ, Denardo SJ et al. Quantitative SPECT of uptake of monoclonal antibodies. Sem Nucl Med 1989: 19; 22-32.
117. Knöös T, Ahlgren L, Nilsson M. A method for conversion of Hounsfield number to electron density and prediction of macroscopic pair production cross-sections. Radiother Oncol 1986: 5; 337-345.
118. Iosilevsky G, Israel O, Frenkel A et al. A practical SPECT technique for quantitation of drug delivery to human tumors and organ absorbed radiation dose. Sem Nucl Med 1989: 19; 33-46.
119. Pretorius PH, Van Aswegen A, Herbst CP, Lötter M. The effects of different correction techniques on absolute volume determination with SPECT using a threshold edge detection method. Med Phys 1991: 18; 390-393.
120. Hademenos GJ, King MA, Ljungberg M, Zubal IG, and Harrell CR. A Scatter correction method for 201-Tl images: A Monte Carlo investigation. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1993: NS-40; 1179-1186.
121. Frey EC, Tsui BMW, Perry JR. Simultaneous acquisition of emission and transmission data for improved thallium-201 cardiac SPECT imaging using a technetium-99m transmission source. J Nucl Med 1992: 33; 1242-1252.
122. Leichner PK, Vriesendorp HM, Hawkins WG, et al. Quantitative SPECT for In-111 labeled antibodies in the livers of beagle dogs. J Nucl Med 1991: 32; 1442-1444.
123. Gilland DR, RJ, Bowsher JE, Greer KL, Coleman RE. Measured accuracy and precision in quantitative SPECT imaging with iodine-123. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1995: 42; 1120-1125.
124. 131I distribution by gamma camera imaging. Eur J Nucl Med 1990: 16; 361-365.
125. Li J, Tsui BMW, Welch A, and Gullberg GT. A Monte Carlo study of scatter in simultaneous transmission-emission data acquisition using a triple-camera system for cardiac SPECT. J Nucl Med 1994: 94; 81.
126. Ljungberg M, Strand S-E, Rajeevan N, and King MA. Monte Carlo simulation of transmission studies using a planar source with a parallel collimator and a line source with a fanbeam collimator. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1994: 41; 1577-1584.
127. Beck JW. Analysis of a camera based single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) system. PhD Thesis, University Microfilms International. Ann Arbor Michigan 1982.
128. Wang HL, Jaszczak RJ, Gilland DR, Greer KL, and Coleman M. Solid geometry based modelling of non-uniform attenuation and compton scattering in objects for SPECT imaging systems. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1993: 40; 1305-1312.
129. Yanch JC, Dobrzeniecki AB. Monte Carlo simulation in SPECT: Complete 3-D modeling of source, collimator and tomographic data acquisition. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1992: 40; 198-203.
130. Nelson WR, Hirayama H, Rogers DWO. The EGS4 code system. SLAC-256. Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Stanford. California 1985.
131. Iida H, Narita Y, Eberl S. Simulation of Compton scatter in single-photon emission computed tomography, in Proceedings of the Fifth EGS4 users' meeting in Japan. KEK, Tsukuba, Japan, 23-25 July 1995; 33-46.
132. Zaidi H. Organ volume estimation using SPECT. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 1996: 43; 2174-2182.
133. Li J, Jaszczak RJ, Greer KL, Gilland DR, DeLong DM, Coleman RE. Evaluation of SPECT quantification of radiopharmaceutical distribution in canine myocardium. J Nucl Med 1995: 36; 278-286.
134. Tsui BMW, Zhao X, Frey EC, McCartney WH. Quantitative single-photon emission computed tomography: Basics and clinical considerations. Semin Nucl Med 1994: 24; 38-65.
135. Tsui BMW, Frey EC, Zhao X, Lalush DS, Johnston RE, McCartney WH. The importance and implementation of accurate 3D compensation methods for quantitative SPECT. Phys Med Biol 1994: 39; 509.
136. Buvat I, Benali H. Todd-Pokropek A. State of the art for scatter correction in SPECT. Eur J Nucl Med 1994: 21; 675-694.