Glucose regulation and cognitive functions: Relation to Alzheimer's disease and diabetes

Behavioural Brain Research

Volumn 75, Issue 1-2, 1996, Pages 1-11

  Messier, Claude ^a   Gagnon, Michèle ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

^b ROYAL OTTAWA HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Aging; Glucose transporter; Insulin; Memory; Metabolism

Indexed keywords

GLUCOSE;

ADULT; AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BRAIN METABOLISM; COGNITIVE DEFECT; FEMALE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; MALE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0029869755     PISSN: 01664328     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/0166-4328(95)00153-0     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Adolfsson, R., Bucht, G., Lithner, F. and Winblad, B., Hypoglycemia in Alzheimer's disease, Acta Med. Scand., 208 (1980) 387-388.
2. Ahlers, S.T., Shurtleff, D., Schrot, J., Thomas, J.R. and Paul-Emile, F., Glucose attenuates cold-induced impairment of delayed matching-to-sample performance in rats, Psychobiology, 21 (1993) 87-92.
3. Alavi, A., Newberg, A.B., Souder, E. and Berlin, J.A., Quantitative analysis of PET and MRI data in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease: atrophy weighted total brain metabolism and absolute whole brain metabolism as reliable discriminators, J. Nucl. Med., 34 (1993) 1681-1687.
4. Benton, D. and Owens, D.S., Blood glucose and human memory, Psychopharmacology, 113 (1993) 83-88.
5. Blokland, A. and Jolles, J., Spatial learning deficit and reduced hippocampal ChAT activity in rats after an ICV injection of streptozotocin, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 44 (1993) 491-494.
6. Brown, M.R., Brain actions of peptides that regulate carbohydrate metabolism. In J.E. Morley. M.B. Sterman and J.H. Walsh (Eds.), Nutritional Modulation of Neural Function, Academic Press, San Diego CA, 1988, pp. 251-261.
7. Bucht, G., Adolfsson, R., Lithner, F. and Winblad, B., Changes in blood glucose and insulin secretion in patients with senile dementia of alzheimer type, Acta Med. Scand., 213 (1983) 387-392.
8. Campbell, B.A. and Fibiger, H.C., Potentiation of amphetamine-induced arousal by starvation, Nature, 233 (1971) 424-425.
9. Chance, W.T., Cao, L. and Fischer, J.E., Brain 3-methoxytryptamine varies inversely with blood glucose in decapitated rats, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 32 (1989) 553-556.
10. Clayson, S.J., Effect of hypoglycemia on T-maze learning in rats, Phys. Ther., 51 (1971) 991-999.
11. Cotman, C.W., Pike, C.J. and Copani, A., Beta-amyloid neurotoxicity: a discussion of in vitro findings, Neurobiol. Aging, 13 (1992) 587-590.
12. Craft, S., Dagogo-Jack, S.E., Wiethop, B.V., Murphy, C., Nevins, R.T., Fleischman, S., Rice, V., Newcomer, J.W. and Cryer, P.E., Effects of hyperglycemia on memory and hormone levels in dementia of the Alzheimer type: a longitudinal study, Behav. Neurosci., 107 (1993) 926-940.
13. Craft, S., Murphy, C. and Wemstrom, J., Glucose effects on complex memory and nonmemory tasks: the influence of age, sex, and glucoregulatory response, Psychobiology, 22 (1994) 95-105.
14. Craft, S., Zallen, G. and Baker, L.D., Glucose and memory in mild senile dementia of the Alzheimer type, J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol., 14 (1992) 253-267.
15. Davalos, A., Cendra, E., Teruel, J., Martinez, M. and Genis, D., Deteriorating ischemic stroke: risk factors and prognosis. Neurology, 40 (1990) 1865-1869.
16. Dolezal, V. and Tucek, S., Effects of choline and glucose on atropine-induced alteration of acetylcholine synthesis and content in the brain of rats, Brain Res., 240 (1982) 285-293.
17. Duckrow, R.B., Glucose transfer into rat brain during acute and chronic hyperglycemia, Metab. Brain Dis., 3 (1988) 201-209.
18. Durkin, T.P., Messier, C., de Boer, P. and Westerink, B.H.C., Raised glucose levels enhance scopolamine-induced acetylcholine outflow from the hippocampus: an in vivo microdialysis study in the rat, Behav. Brain Res., 49 (1992) 181-188.
19. Fisman, M., Gordon, B., Feleki, V., Helmes, E., McDonald, T. and Dupre, J., Metabolic changes in Alzheimer's disease, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 36 (1988) 298-300.
20. Flood, J.F., Mooradian, A.D. and Morley, J.E., Characteristics of learning and memory in streptozocin-induced diabetic mice, Diabetes, 39 (1990) 1391-1398.
21. Flood, J.F. and Morley, J.E., Effects of bombesin and gastrin-releasing peptide on memory processing, Brain Res., 460 (1988) 314-322.
22. Flood, J.F., Smith, G.E. and Morley, J.E., Modulation of memory processing by cholecystokinin: dependence on the vagus nerve, Science, 236 (1987) 832-834.
23. 18F]fluorodeoxyglucose, J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr., 7 (1983) 590-598.
24. Fujisawa, Y., Sasaki, K. and Akiyama, K., Increased insulin levels after OGTT load in peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with dementia of Alzheimer type, Biol. Psychiatry, 30 (1991) 1219-1228.
25. Gandy, S., Caporaso, G., Buxbaum, J., Frangione, B. and Greengard, P., APP processing, beta-amyloidogenesis, and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, Neurobiol. Aging, 15 (1994) 253-256.
26. Gibson, G. and Blass, J.P., Impaired synthesis of acetylcholine in brain accompanying mild hypoxia and hypoglycemia, J. Neurochem., 27 (1976) 37-42.
27. Reference deleted.
28. Gibson, G.E. and Blass, J.P., Inhibition of acetylcholine synthesis and of carbohydrate utilization by metabolites from maple-syrup-urine disease, J. Neurochem., 26 (1976) 1073-1078.
29. +]/[NADH] potentials and glucose utilization in rat brain slices, J. Biol. Chem., 251 (1976) 4127-4130.
30. Gibson, G.E., Jope, R. and Blass, J.P., Reduced synthesis of acetylcholine accompanying impaired oxydation of pyruvic acid in rat brain slices, Biochem. J., 148 (1975) 17-23.
31. Gold, P.E., An integrated memory regulation system: from blood to brain. In R.C.A. Frederickson, J.L. McGaugh and D.L. Felten (Eds.), Peripheral Signalling of the Brain: Role in Neural-Immune Interactions, Learning and Memory, Hogrefe and Huber, Toronto, 1991, pp. 391-420.
32. Gold, P.E., Modulation of memory processing: enhancement of memory in rodents and humans. In L.R. Squire and N. Butters (Eds.), Neuropsychology of Memory, Guilford Press, New York, NY, 1992, pp. 402-414.
33. Gold, P.E., Modulation of emotional and non-emotional memories: same pharmacological systems, different neuroanatomical systems. In J.L. McGaugh, N.M. Weinberger and G.S. Lynch (Eds.), Brain and Memory: Modulation and Mediation of Neuroplasticity, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
34. Gold, P.E., Vogt, J. and Hall, J.L., Posttraining glucose effects on memory: behavioral and pharmacological characteristics, Behav. Neural Biol., 46 (1986) 145-155.
35. Gold, P.E. and Zornetzer, S.F., The mnemon and its juices: neuromodulation of memory processes, Behav. Neural Biol., 38 (1983) 151-189.
36. Gonder-Frederick, L., Hall, J.L., Vogt, J., Cox, D.J., Green, J. and Gold, P.E., Memory enhancement in elderly humans: effect of glucose ingestion, Physiol. Behav., 41 (1987) 503-504.
37. Gradman, T.J., Laws, A., Thompson, L.W. and Reaven, G.M., Verbal learning and/or memory improves with glycemic control in older subjects with nun-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 41 (1993) 1305-1312.
38. Hall, J.L., Reilly, R.T., Cottrill, K.L., Stone, W.S. and Gold, P.E., Phlorizin enhancement of memory in rats and mice, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 41 (1992) 295-299.
39. Harada, M., Sawa, T., Okuda, C., Matsuda, T. and Tanaka, Y., Effects of glucose load on brain extracellular lactate concentration in conscious rats using a microdialysis technique, Horm. Metab. Res., 25 (1993) 560-563.
40. Haxby, J.V., Cognitive deficits and local metabolic changes in dementia of the Alzheimer type. In S.R. Rapoport, H. Petit, D. Leys and Y. Christen (Eds.), Imaging, Cerebral Topography and Alzheimers Disease, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990, pp. 109-119.
41. Hellweg, R., Nitsch, R., Hock, C., Jaksch, M. and Hoyer, S., Nerve growth factor and choline acetyltransferase activity levels in the rat brain following experimental impairment of cerebral glucose and energy metabolism, J. Neurosci. Res., 31 (1992) 479-486.
42. Hofer, R.E. and Lanier, W.L., The effects of insulin infusion on plasma and brain glucose in hyperglycemic diabetic rats: a comparison with placebo-treated diabetic and nondiabetic rats, Anesthesiology, 75 (1991) 673-678.
43. Hoyer, S., Sporadic dementia of Alzheimer's type: role of amyloid in etiology is challenged, J. Neural Transm., 6 (1993) 159-165.
44. Huston, J.P., Mondadori, C. and Waser, P.G., Facilitation of learning by reward of post-trial memory processes, Experientia, 30 (1974) 1038-1040.
45. Izumi, Y., Pinard, E., Roussel, S. and Seylaz, J., Insulin protects brain tissue against focal ischemia in rats, Neurosci. Lett., 144 (1992) 121-123.
46. Jaffard, R., Destrade, C., Soumireu-Mourat, B. and Cardo, B., Time-dependent improvement of performance on appetitive tasks in ice, Behav. Biol., 11 (1974) 89-100.
47. Jay, T.M., Dienel, G.A., Cruz, N.F., Mori, K., Nelson, T. and Sokoloff, L., Metabolic stability of 3-O-methyl-D-glucose in brain and other tissues, J. Neurochem., 55 (1990) 989-1000.
48. Kalaria, R.N., The blood-brain barrier and cerebral microcirculation in Alzheimer disease, Cerebrovasc. Brain Metab. Rev., 4 (1992) 226-260.
49. Kozuka, M., Smith, M.-L. and Siesjö, B.K., Preischemic hyperglycemia enhances postischemic depression of cerebral metabolic rate, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 9 (1989) 478-490.
50. Kraus-Friedman, N., Hormonal regulation of hepatic gluconeogenesis, Physiol. Rev., 64 (1984) 170-258.
51. Kumar, V. and Calache, M., Treatment of Alzheimer's disease with cholinergic drugs, Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol Ther. Toxicol., 29 (1991) 23-37.
52. Landin, K., Blennow, K., Wallin, A. and Gottfries, C.G., Low blood pressure and blood glucose levels in Alzheimer's disease. Evidence for a hypometabolic disorder?. J. Intern. Med., 233 (1993) 357-363.
53. 13C]glucose metabolites, J. Biol. Chem., 269 (1994) 27198-27208.
54. Lapp, J.E., Effects of glycemic alterations and noun imagery on the learning of paired associates, J. Learning Disord., 14 (1981) 35-38.
55. Lee, M.K., Graham, S.N. and Gold, P.E., Memory enhancement with posttraining intraventricular glucose injections in rats, Behav. Neurosci., 102 (1988) 591-595.
56. Leone, P., Sherwin, R.S., Davis, K.E., Wallace, E., Dragunow, M. and During. M.J., Cognitive improvement and KROX 24 induction in the lateral amygdala after D-glucose administration, Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 20 (1994) 807.
57. Long, J.M., Davis, B.J., Garofalo, P., Spangler, E.L. and Ingram, D.K., Complex maze performance in young and aged rats: response to glucose treatment and relationship to blood insulin and glucose, Physiol. Behav., 51 (1992) 411-418.
58. Lux, F., Brase, D.A. and Dewey, W.L., Antagonism of antinociception in mice by glucose and fructose: comparison of subcutaneous and intrathecal morphine, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 146 (1988) 337-340.
59. Malaisse-Lagae, F., Giroix, M.-H., Sener, A. and Malaisse, W.J., Phosphorylation of 3-O-methyl-D-glucose by yeast and beef hexokinase, Fed. Eur. Biochem. Soc. Lett., 198 (1986) 292-294.
60. Mann, U.M., Mohr, E., Gearing, M. and Chase, T.N., Heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: progression rate segregated by distinct neuropsychological and cerebral metabolic profiles, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 55 (1992) 956-959.
61. Manning, C.A., Hall, J.L. and Gold, P.E., Glucose effects on memory and other neuropsychological tests in elderly humans, Psychol Sci., 5 (1990) 307-311.
62. Manning, C.A., Parsons, M.W. and Gold, P.E., Anterograde and retrograde enhancement of 24-h memory by glucose in elderly humans, Behav. Neural Biol., 58 (1992) 125-130.
63. Manning, C.A., Ragozzino, M.E. and Gold, P.E., Glucose enhancement of memory in patients with probable senile demen-tia of the Alzheimer's type, Neurobiol. Aging, 14 (1993) 523-528.
64. Marshall, J.F., Further analysis of the resistance of diabetic rats to d-amphetamine, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 8 (1978) 281-286.
65. Marshall, J.F., Friedman, M.I. and Heffner, T.G., Reduced anorexic and locomotor-stimulant action of d-amphetamine in alloxan-diabetic rats, Brain Res., 111 (1976) 428-432.
66. Mayer, G., Nitsch, R. and Hoyer, S., Effects of changes in peripheral and cerebral glucose metabolism on locomotor activity, learning and memory in adult male rats, Brain Res., 532 (1990) 95-100.
67. McCaleb, M.I. and Myers, R.D., Striatal dopamine release is altered by glucose and insulin during push-pull perfusion of the rat's caudate nucleus, Brain Res. Bull., 4 (1979) 651-656.
68. Means, L.W. and Fernandez, T.J., Daily glucose injections facilitate performance of a win-stay water-escape working memory task in mice, Behav. Neurosci., 106 (1992) 345-350.
69. Meneilly, G.S., Cheung, E., Tessier, D., Yakura, C. and Tuokko, H., The effect of improved glycemic control on cognitive functions in the elderly patient with diabetes, J. Gerontol., 48 (1993) M117-M121.
70. Meneilly, G.S. and Hill, A., Alterations in glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer's disease, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 41 (1993) 710-714.
71. Messier, C. and Destrade, C., Improvement of memory for an operant response by post-training glucose in mice, Behav. Brain Res., 31 (1988) 185-191.
72. Messier, C. and Destrade, C., Insulin attenuates scopolamine-induced memory deficits, Psychobiology, 22 (1994) 16-21.
73. Messier, C., Durkin, T., Mrabet, O. and Destrade, C., Memory-improving action of glucose: indirect evidence for a facilitation of hippocampal acetylcholine synthesis, Behav. Brain Res., 39 (1990) 135-143.
74. Messier, C. and White, N.M., Memory improvement by glucose, fructose and two glucose analogs: a possible effect on peripheral glucose transport, Behav. Neural Biol., 48 (1987) 104-127.
75. Mielke, R., Herholz, K., Grond, M., Kessler, J. and Heiss, W.D., Differences of regional cerebral glucose metabolism between pre-senile and senile dementia of Alzheimer type, Neurobiol. Aging, 13 (1992) 93-98.
76. Mielke, R., Herholz, K., Grond, M., Kessler, J. and Heiss, W.D., Clinical deterioration in probable Alzheimer's disease correlates with progressive metabolic impairment of association areas, Dementia, 5 (1994) 36-41.
77. Montefusco, O., Assini, M.C. and Missale, C, Insulin-mediated effects of glucose on dopamine metabolism, Acta Diabetol. Lat., 20 (1983) 71-77.
78. Murphy, D., Bottomley, P.A., Salerno, J.A., DeCarli, C., Mentis, M.J., Grady, C.L., Teichberg, D., Giacometti, K.R., Rosenberg, J.M., Hardy, C.J., Schapiro, M.B., Rapoport, S.I., Alger, J.R. and Horwitz, B., An in vivo study of phosphorus and glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease using magnetic resonance spectroscopy and PET, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 50 (1993) 341-349.
79. Niijima, A., Nervous regulation of metabolism, Prog. Neurobiol., 33 (1989) 135-147.
80. Nitsch, R.M., Blusztajn, J.K., Pittas, A.G., Slack, B.E., Growdon, J.H. and Wurtman, R.J., Evidence for a membrane defect in Alzheimer disease brain, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 89 (1992) 1671-1675.
81. Nogueira, P., Tomaz, C. and Williams, C.L., Contribution of the vagus nerve in mediating the memory-facilitating effects of substance P, Behav. Brain Res., 62 (1994) 165-169.
82. Packard, M.G. and White, N.M., Memory facilitation produced by dopamine agonists: role of receptor subtype and mnemonic requirements, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 33 (1989) 511-518.
83. Packard, M.G. and White, N.M., Effect of posttraining injections of glucose on acquisition of two appetitive learning tasks, Psychobiology, 18 (1990) 282-286.
84. Parsons, M.W. and Gold, P.E., Glucose enhancement of memory in elderly humans: an inverted-U dose-response curve, Neurobiol. Aging, 13 (1992) 401-404.
85. Parsons, M.W. and Gold, P.E., Scopolamine-induced deficits in spontaneous alternation performance: attenuation with lateral ventricle injections of glucose, Behav. Neural Biol., 57 (1992) 90-92.
86. Pelligrino, D.A., LaManna, J.C., Duckrow, R.B., Bryan, R.J. and Harik, S.I., Hyperglycemia and blood-brain barrier glucose transport, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 12 (1992) 887-899.
87. Perri, V., Sacchi, O. and Casella, C., Nervous transmission in the superior cervical ganglion of the thiamin-deficient rat, J. Exp. Physiol, 55 (1970) 25-35.
88. Pettegrew, J.W., Panchalingam, K., Klunk, W.E., McClure, R.J. and Muenz, L.R., Alterations of cerebral metabolism in probable Alzheimer's disease: a preliminary study, Neurobiol. Aging, 15 (1994) 117-132.
89. Ragozzino, M.E. and Gold, P.E., Glucose infusions into the septum block the effects of intraseptal morphine injections on hippocampal acetylcholine output and memory, Neurosci. Abstr., 20 (1994) 1023.
90. Ragozzino, M.E., Parker, M.E. and Gold, P.E., Spontaneous alternation and inhibitory avoidance impairments with morphine injections into the medial septum. Attenuation by glucose administration. Brain Res., 597 (1992) 241-249.
91. Rapoport, S.I., Topography of Alzheimers disease - Involvement of association neocortices and connected regions - Pathological, metabolic and cognitive correlations - Relation to evolution. In S.R. Rapoport, H. Petit, D. Leys and Y. Christen (Eds.), Imaging, Cerebral Topography and Alzheimers Disease, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990, pp. 1-17.
92. Rapoport, S.I., Horwitz, B., Grady, C.L., Haxby, J.V., DeCarli, C. and Schapiro, M.B., Abnormal brain glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease, as measured by positron emission tomography, Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 291 (1991) 231-248.
93. Reaven, G.M. and Thompson, L.W., Reduced cognitive function in older patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes: relationship to severity of hyperglycemia, Diabetes, 37 (Suppl. 1) (1988) 4A.
94. Reaven, G.M., Thompson, L.W., Nahum, D. and Haskins, E., Relationship between hyperglycemia and cognitive function in older NIDDM patients, Diabetes Care, 13 (1990) 16-21.
95. Ricny, J., Tucek, S. and Novakova, J., Acetylcarnitine, carnitine and glucose diminish the effect of muscarinic antagonist quin-uclidinyl benzilate on striatal acetylcholine content, Brain Res., 576 (1992) 215-219.
96. Rodriguez, W.A., Home, C.A., Mondragon. A.N. and Phelps, D.D., Comparable dose-response functions for the effects of glucose and fructose on memory, Behav. Neural Biol., 61 (1994) 162-169.
97. Rodriguez, W.A., Van Ausdle, L.R., Dhanens, K. and Mondragon, A.N., Glucose modulates recently reactivated memories, Psychobiology, 21 (1993) 93-100.
98. Ryan, C.M. and Williams, T.M., Effects of insulin-dependent diabetes on learning and memory efficiency in adults, J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol., 15 (1993) 685-700.
99. Saller, C.F. and Chiodo, L.A., Glucose suppresses basal firing and haloperidol-induced increases in the firing rate of central dopaminergic neurons, Science, 210 (1980) 1269-1271.
100. Saller, C.F. and Kopin, I.J., Glucose potentiates haloperidol-induced catalepsy, Life Sci., 29 (1981) 2337-2341.
101. Saller, C.F. and Kreamer, L.D., Glucose concentrations in brain and blood - Regulation by dopamine receptor subtypes, Brain Res., 546 (1991) 235-240.
102. Sara, S.J., Glucose effects on firing rate of neurons of the locus coeruleus: another attempt to put memory back in the brain, Neurobiol. Aging, 9 (1988) 730-732.
103. Schapiro, M.B., Pietrini, P., Grady, C.L., Ball, M.J., DeCarli, C., Kumar, A., Kaye, J.A. and Haxby, J.V., Reductions in parietal and temporal cerebral metabolic rates for glucose are not specific for Alzheimer's disease, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 56 (1993) 859-864.
104. Schmechel, D.E., Saunders, A.M., Strittmatter, W.J., Grain, B.J., Hulette, C.M., Joo, S.H., Pericak-Vance, M.A., Goldgaber, D. and Roses, A.D., Increased amyloid beta-peptide deposition in cerebral cortex as a consequence of apolipoprotein E genotype in late-onset Alzheimer disease, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 90 (1993) 9649-9653.
105. Sieber, F.E. and Traystman, R.J., Special issues: glucose and the brain, Crit. Care Med., 20 (1992) 104-114.
106. Silverman, M., Structure and function of hexose transporters, Annu. Rev. Biochem., 60 (1991) 757-794.
107. Sims, N.R., Energy metabolism and selective neuronal vulnerability following global cerebral ischemia, Neurochem. Res., 17 (1992) 923-931.
108. Smyth, M.D., Kesslak, J.P., Cummings, B.J. and Cotman, C.W., Analysis of brain injury following intrahippocampal administration of beta-amyloid in streptozotocin-treated rats, Neurobiol. Aging, 15 (1994) 153-159.
109. Stefani, M.R., Ragozzino, M.E., Thompson, P.K., Hellems, K., Lennartz, R.C. and Gold, P.E., Regulation of spontaneous alternation in the rat by glucose: a role for glycolysis, Neurosci. Abstr., 20 (1994) 1763.
110. Stone, W.S., Cottrill, K.L. and Gold, P.E., Glucose and epinephrine attenuation of scopolamine-induced increases in locomotor activity in mice, Neurosci. Res. Comm., 1 (1987) 105-111.
111. Stone, W.S., Cottrill, K.L., Walker, D.L. and Gold, P.E., Blood glucose and brain function: interactions with CNS cholinergic systems, Behav. Neural Biol., 50 (1988) 325-334.
112. 3H]2-deoxyglucose, Psychobiology, 20 (1992) 270-279.
113. Stone, W.S., Walker, B., Gold, S.D. and Gold, P.E., Scopolamine-induced and morphine-induced impairments of spontaneous alternation performance in mice - Reversal with glucose and with cholinergic and adrenergic agonists, Behav. Neurosci., 105 (1991) 264-271.
114. Stone, W.S., Wenk, G.L., Olton, D.S. and Gold, P.E., Poor glucose regulation predicts sleep and memory deficits in normal aged rats, J. Gerontol: Biol Sci., 45 (1990) B169-B173.
115. Strong, A.J., Fairfield, J.E., Monteiro, E., Kirby, M., Hogg, A.R., Snape, M. and Rossfield, L., Insulin protects cognitive function in experimental stroke, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 53 (1990) 847-853.
116. Lakhman, S.S. and Kaur, G., Effect of alloxan-induced diabetes on acetylcholinesterase activity from discrete areas of rat brain, Neurochem. Int., 24 (1994) 159-163.
117. U'Ren, R.C., Riddle, M.C., Lezak, M.D. and Bennington-Davis, M., The mental efficiency of the elderly person with Type II diabetes mellitus, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 38 (1990) 505-510.
118. Voll, C.L. and Auer, R.N., Insulin attenuates ischemic brain damage independent of its hypoglycemic effect, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 11 (1991) 1006-1014.
119. Warner, D.S., Gionet, T.X., Todd, M.M. and McAllister, A.M., Insulin-induced normoglycemia improves ischemic outcome in hyperglycemic rats, Stroke, 23 (1992) 1775-1781.
120. Wechsler, D., Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. Psychological Corporation, New York, 1987.
121. Wenk, G.L., An hypothesis on the role of glucose in the mechanism of action of cognitive enhancers, Psychopharmacology, 99 (1989) 431-438.
122. White, N.M., Peripheral and central memory enhancing actions of glucose. In R.C.A. Frederickson, J.L. McGaugh and D.L. Felten (Eds.), Peripheral Signalling of the Brain: Role in Neural-Immune Interactions, Learning and Memory, Hogrefe and Huber, Toronto, 1991, pp. 421-443.
123. White, N.M. and Blackburn, J., Effect of glucose on amphetamine-induced motor behavior, Life Sci., 38 (1986) 2255-2262.
124. White, N.M. and Messier, C., Effect of adrenal demedullation on the conditioned emotional response and on the memory improving action of glucose, Behav. Neurosci., 102 (1988) 499-503.
125. Williams, C.L. and Jensen, R.A., Vagal afferents: a possible mechanism for the modulation of memory by peripherally acting agents. In R.C.A. Frederickson, J.L. McGaugh and D.L. Felten (Eds.), Peripheral Signalling of the Brain: Role in Neural-Immune Interactions, Learning and Memory, Hogrefe and Huber, Toronto, 1991, pp. 467-472.
126. Williams, C.L. and Jensen, R.A., Effects of vagotomy on Leu-enkephalin-induced changes in memory storage processes, Physiol. Behav., 54 (1993) 659-663.
127. Winograd, C.H., Jacobson, D.H., Minkoff, J.R., Peabody, C.A., Taylor, B.S., Widrow, L. and Yesavage, J.A., Blood glucose and insulin response in patients with senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type, Biol. Psychiatry, 30 (1991) 507-511.