Direct and indirect effects of parental education on malnutrition among children in Brazil: A full income approach

Economic Development and Cultural Change

Volumn 44, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 816-838

  Kassouf, Ana L ^a   Senauer, Benjamin ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD HEALTH; HOUSEHOLD INCOME; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PARENTAL EDUCATION;

BRAZIL;

EID: 0029857439     PISSN: 00130079     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/452246     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. United Nations, Administrative Committee on Coordination-Subcommittee on Nutrition, Second Report on the World Nutrition Situation 1 (October 1992): 1.
2. Jere Behrman and Anil Deolalikar, "Health and Nutrition," in Handbook of Development Economics, ed. Hollis Chenery and T. N. Srinivasan (New York: North Holland, 1988), 1:631-711, provides an excellent review.
3. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See esp. chap. 2, "Households and Health," pp. 37-51. Some specific recent studies finding important education effects are Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil," Journal of Development Economics 33 (1990): 197-234; and Duncan Thomas and John Strauss, "Prices, Infrastructure, Household Characteristics and Child Height," Journal of Development Economics 39 (1992): 301-31. Also Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia, Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report no. 96 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993); and Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized," Journal of Development Economics 14 (1984): 105-28.
4. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See esp. chap. 2, "Households and Health," pp. 37-51. Some specific recent studies finding important education effects are Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil," Journal of Development Economics 33 (1990): 197-234; and Duncan Thomas and John Strauss, "Prices, Infrastructure, Household Characteristics and Child Height," Journal of Development Economics 39 (1992): 301-31. Also Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia, Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report no. 96 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993); and Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized," Journal of Development Economics 14 (1984): 105-28.
5. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See esp. chap. 2, "Households and Health," pp. 37-51. Some specific recent studies finding important education effects are Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil," Journal of Development Economics 33 (1990): 197-234; and Duncan Thomas and John Strauss, "Prices, Infrastructure, Household Characteristics and Child Height," Journal of Development Economics 39 (1992): 301-31. Also Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia, Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report no. 96 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993); and Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized," Journal of Development Economics 14 (1984): 105-28.
6. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See esp. chap. 2, "Households and Health," pp. 37-51. Some specific recent studies finding important education effects are Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil," Journal of Development Economics 33 (1990): 197-234; and Duncan Thomas and John Strauss, "Prices, Infrastructure, Household Characteristics and Child Height," Journal of Development Economics 39 (1992): 301-31. Also Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia, Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report no. 96 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993); and Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized," Journal of Development Economics 14 (1984): 105-28.
7. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See esp. chap. 2, "Households and Health," pp. 37-51. Some specific recent studies finding important education effects are Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil," Journal of Development Economics 33 (1990): 197-234; and Duncan Thomas and John Strauss, "Prices, Infrastructure, Household Characteristics and Child Height," Journal of Development Economics 39 (1992): 301-31. Also Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia, Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report no. 96 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993); and Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized," Journal of Development Economics 14 (1984): 105-28.
8. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). See esp. chap. 2, "Households and Health," pp. 37-51. Some specific recent studies finding important education effects are Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil," Journal of Development Economics 33 (1990): 197-234; and Duncan Thomas and John Strauss, "Prices, Infrastructure, Household Characteristics and Child Height," Journal of Development Economics 39 (1992): 301-31. Also Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia, Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan, International Food Policy Research Institute, Research Report no. 96 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1993); and Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized," Journal of Development Economics 14 (1984): 105-28.
9. Amartya Sen, "The Economics of Life and Death," Scientific American (May 1993), pp. 40-47.
10. Thomas and Strauss, p. 312.
11. See, e.g., Behrman and Deolalikar.
12. Gary Becker, "A Theory of the Allocation of Time," Economic Journal 75 (1965): 493-517, and A Treatise on the Family (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
13. Gary Becker, "A Theory of the Allocation of Time," Economic Journal 75 (1965): 493-517, and A Treatise on the Family (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
14. Thomas, Strauss, and Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil"; and Thomas and Strauss.
15. Duncan Thomas, John Strauss, and Maria-Helena Henriques, "How Does Mother's Education Affect Child Height?" Journal of Human Resources 26 (1991): 183-211.
16. See Behrman and Deolalikar.
17. Becker, "A Theory of the Allocation of Time."
18. See Thomas, Strauss, and Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil" (n. 3 above).
19. Thomas and Strauss (n. 3 above); and Thomas, Strauss, and Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil"; also Alderman and Garcia (n. 3 above).
20. Alderman and Garcia, pp. 64-70.
21. World Health Organization Working Group, "Use and Interpretation of Anthropometric Indicators of Nutritional Status," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 64 (1986): 929-41. Also J. C. Waterlow, "The Presentation and Use of Height and Weight Data for Comparing the Nutritional Status of Groups of Children under the Age of 10 Years," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 55 (1977): 489-98.
22. World Health Organization Working Group, "Use and Interpretation of Anthropometric Indicators of Nutritional Status," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 64 (1986): 929-41. Also J. C. Waterlow, "The Presentation and Use of Height and Weight Data for Comparing the Nutritional Status of Groups of Children under the Age of 10 Years," Bulletin of the World Health Organization 55 (1977): 489-98.
23. See James Heckman, "Shadow Prices, Market Wages, and Labor Supply," Econometrica 1 (1974): 679-94, and "Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error," in Female Labor Supply: Theory and Estimation, ed. James P. Smith (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980).
24. See James Heckman, "Shadow Prices, Market Wages, and Labor Supply," Econometrica 1 (1974): 679-94, and "Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error," in Female Labor Supply: Theory and Estimation, ed. James P. Smith (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980).
25. Parda is a race defined as between black and white.
26. Halbert White, "A Heteroskedasticity Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimator and a Direct Test for Heteroskedasticity," Econometrica 4 (1980): 817-38.
27. Thomas and Strauss.
28. Ibid.; and Thomas, Strauss, and Henriques, "How Does Mother's Education Affect Child Height?" (n. 9 above).
29. Thomas, Strauss, and Henriques, "How Does Mother's Education Affect Child Height?"
30. Thomas and Strauss (n. 3 above) observed that food prices in Brazil in the rural sector were lower than in the urban sector.
31. World Health Organization Working Group (n. 15 above).
32. John Strauss, "Household, Communities, and Preschool Children's Nutrition Outcomes: Evidence from Rural Côte d'Ivoire," Economic Development and Cultural Change 38 (1990): 235-61; and Susan Horton, "Birth Order and Child Nutritional Status: Evidence from the Philippines," Economic Development and Cultural Change 36 (1988): 341-54, also found the gender effect insignificant.
33. John Strauss, "Household, Communities, and Preschool Children's Nutrition Outcomes: Evidence from Rural Côte d'Ivoire," Economic Development and Cultural Change 38 (1990): 235-61; and Susan Horton, "Birth Order and Child Nutritional Status: Evidence from the Philippines," Economic Development and Cultural Change 36 (1988): 341-54, also found the gender effect insignificant.
34. Thomas and Strauss, p. 317.
35. Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "How Does Mother's Schooling Affect Family Health, Nutrition, Medical Care Usage, and Household Sanitation?" Journal of Econometrics 36 (1987): 185-204. Also see Jere Behrman, "Women's Schooling and Nonmarket Productivity: A Survey and Reappraisal" (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1990, mimeographed).
36. Jere Behrman and Barbara Wolfe, "How Does Mother's Schooling Affect Family Health, Nutrition, Medical Care Usage, and Household Sanitation?" Journal of Econometrics 36 (1987): 185-204. Also see Jere Behrman, "Women's Schooling and Nonmarket Productivity: A Survey and Reappraisal" (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1990, mimeographed).
37. Horton found that mother's age had a significant positive impact on child's height for age, while Strauss concluded that the impact of the mother's age was not significant.
38. Thomas, Strauss, and Henriques, "Child Survival, Height for Age and Household Characteristics in Brazil" (n. 3 above); also see the other references in n. 3 above.
39. There may be some concern that wages are endogenous and, hence, simultaneous equation bias could exist. Individuals' productivity and wage rates are affected by their consumption, particularly of food and health inputs. This problem is alleviated since the procedure used is akin to two-stage least squares in which the estimated wage is a function of exogenous instrumental variables.
40. Alderman and Garcia (n. 3 above), p. 78.
41. Behrman and Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized" (n. 3 above); also Jere Behrman, "Nutrition and Incomes: Tightly Wedded or Loosely Meshed?" (paper presented in the PEW/Cornell Lecture Series on Food and Nutrition Policy, Cornell Food and Nutrition Policy Program, Ithaca, N.Y., 1988).
42. Behrman and Wolfe, "More Evidence on Nutrition Demand: Income Seems Overrated and Women's Schooling Underemphasized" (n. 3 above); also Jere Behrman, "Nutrition and Incomes: Tightly Wedded or Loosely Meshed?" (paper presented in the PEW/Cornell Lecture Series on Food and Nutrition Policy, Cornell Food and Nutrition Policy Program, Ithaca, N.Y., 1988).