A fresh look at the causes and treatments of recurrent miscarriage, especially its immunological aspects

Human Reproduction Update

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 271-293

  Christiansen, Ole B ^a  

^a AALBORG UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Anticardiolipin antibodies; Autoimmunity; HLA; Pregnancy; Recurrent spontaneous abortion

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AUTOANTIBODY; CARDIOLIPIN ANTIBODY; GAMMA INTERFERON; HEPARIN; HLA DR1 ANTIGEN; HLA DR3 ANTIGEN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; INTERLEUKIN 2; PREDNISONE;

AUTOIMMUNITY; CHROMOSOME ABERRATION; DECIDUA; ENDOCRINOLOGY; FAMILIAL DISEASE; FEMALE; HELPER CELL; HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX; HLA SYSTEM; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LYMPHOCYTE TRANSFUSION; MICROBIOLOGY; MUELLERIAN DUCT; NATURAL KILLER CELL; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT ABORTION; REVIEW; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; TROPHOBLAST;

EID: 0029856002     PISSN: 13554786     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/humupd/2.4.271     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. Alberman, E. (1988) The epidemiology of repeated abortion. In Beard, R.W. and Sharp, F. (eds), Early Pregnancy Loss: Mechanisms and Treatment. Springer Verlag, London, UK, pp. 9-17.
2. Alexander, S.A., Latinne, D., Debruyere, M. et al. (1988) Belgian experience with repeat immunization in recurrent spontaneous abortions. In Beard, R.W. and Sharp, F. (eds), Early Pregnancy Loss: Mechanisms and Treatment. Springer Verlag, London, UK, pp. 355-363.
3. Aoki, K., Kajiura, S., Matsumoto, Y. et al. (1995a) Preconceptional natural-killer activity as a predictor of miscarriage. Lancet, 345, 1340-1342.
4. Aoki, K., Dudkiewicz, A.B., Matsuura, E. et al. (1995b) Clinical significance of β2-glycoprotein i-dependent anticardiolipin antibodies in the reproductive autoimmune failure syndrome: correlation with conventional antiphospholipid antibody detection systems. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 172, 926-931.
5. Arngrimsson, R., Bjørnsson, S., Geirsson, R.T. et al. (1990) Genetic and familial predisposition to eclampsia and pre-eclampsia in a defined population. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 97, 762-769.
6. Bach, J.-F. (1995) Organ-specific autoimmunity. Immunol. Today, 16, 353-355.
7. Bagger, P.V., Andersen, V., Baslund, B. et al. (1993) Anti-cardiolipin antibodies (IgG and IgA) in women with recurrent fetal loss correlate to clinical and serological characteristics of SLE. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 72, 465-469.
8. Bahar, A.M., Kwak, J.Y.H., Beer, A.E. et al. (1993) Antibodies to phospholipids and nuclear antigens in non-pregnant women with unexplained spontaneous recurrent abortions. J. Reprod. Immunol., 24, 213-222.
9. Barbui, T., Cortelazzo, S., Galli, M. et al. (1988) Antiphospholipid antibodies in early repeated abortions: a case-controlled study. Fertil. Steril., 50, 589-592.
10. Beer, A.E., Quebbeman, J.F., Ayers, J.W.T. and Hainies, R.F. (1981) Major histocompatibility complex antigens, maternal and paternal immune responses, and chronic habitual abortions in humans. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 141, 987-999.
11. Beer, A.E., Semprini, A.E., Zhu, X. and Quebbeman, J.F. (1985) Pregnancy outcome in human couples with recurrent spontaneous abortions: HLA antigen profiles; HLA antigen sharing; female serum MLR blocking factors; and paternal leukocyte immunization. Exp. Clin. Immunogenet., 2, 137-153.
12. Bennett, M.J. (1987) Congenital abnormalities of the fundus. In Bennett, M.J. and Edmonds, D.K. (eds), Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK, pp. 109-129.
13. Blumberg, N. and Heal, J.M. (1989) Transfusion and host defences against cancer recurrence and infection. Transfusion, 29, 236-245.
14. Branch, D.W., Scott, J.R., Kochenour, N.K. and Hershgold, E. (1985) Obstetric complications associated with the lupus anticoagulant. N. Engl. J. Med., 313, 1322-1326.
15. Brown, J.H., Jardetzky, T., Saper, M.A. et al. (1988) A hypothetical model of the foreign antigen binding site of class II histocompatibility molecules. Nature, 332, 845-850.
16. Carolis, S.D., Caruso, A., Ferrazzani, S. et al. (1994) Poor pregnancy outcome and anticardiolipin antibodies. Fetal Diag. Ther., 9, 296-299.
17. Carp, H.J., Toder, V. and Mashiach, S. (1992) Immunotherapy of habitual abortion. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 28, 281-284.
18. Carreras, L.O. and Vermylen, J.G. (1982) 'Lupus' anticoagulant and thrombosis - possible role of inhibition of prostacyclin formation. Thromb. Haemost., 48, 38-40.
19. Cauchi, M.N., Tait, B., Wilshire, M.I. et al. (1988) Histocompatibility antigens and habitual abortion. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 18, 28-31.
20. Cauchi, M.N., Lim, D., Young, D.E., Kloss, M. and Pepperell, R.J. (1991) Treatment of recurrent aborters by immunization with paternal cells - controlled trial. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 25, 16-17.
21. Cauchi, M.N., Coulam, C.B., Cowchock, S. et al. (1995) Predictive factors in recurrent spontaneous aborters - a multicenter study. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 33, 165-170.
22. Chaouat, G., Kiger, N. and Wegmann, T.G. (1983) Vaccination against spontaneous abortion in mice. J. Reprod. Immunol., 5, 389-392.
23. Christiansen, O.B. (1995) Low-dose aspirin in the treatment of anticardiolipin positive women with recurrent miscarriage. Hum. Reprod., 10, 3077-3080.
24. Christiansen, O.B. (1996) Transabdominal cervicoistmic cerclage in the management of recurrent second trimester miscarriage and preterm delivery. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 103, 595-596.
25. Christiansen, O.B., Andersen, E.S., Lauritsen, J.G. and Grunnet, N. (1988a) Blood-transfusions in habitual abortion. Fertil. Steril., 49, 186.
26. Christiansen, O.B., Andersen, E.S., Lauritsen, J.G. and Grunnet, N. (1988b) Treatment of habitual abortions associated with autoimmune abnormalities. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 67, 663-664.
27. Christiansen, O.B., Riisom, K., Lauritsen, J.G. and Grunnet, N. (1989a) No increased histocompatibility antigen sharing in couples with idiopathic habitual abortions. Hum. Reprod., 4, 160-162.
28. Christiansen, O.B., Lauritsen, J.G., Andersen, E.S. and Grunnet, N. (1989b) Autoimmune associated recurrent abortions. Hum. Reprod., 4, 913-917.
29. Christiansen, O.B., Mathiesen, O., Lauritsen, J.G. and Grunnet, N. (199Oa) Idiopathic recurrent spontaneous abortion. Evidence of a familial predisposition. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 69, 597-601.
30. Christiansen, O.B., Mathiesen, O., Riisom, K. et al. (1990b) HLA-linked genes reduce birthweight in families affected by idiopathic recurrent abortion. Tissue Antigens, 36, 156-163.
31. Christiansen, O.B., Christiansen, B.S., Husth, M. et al. (1992a) Prospective study of anticardiolipin antibodies in immunized and untreated women with recurrent spontaneous abortions. Fertil. Steril., 58, 328-334.
32. Christiansen, O.B., Mathiesen, O., Lauritsen, J.G. and Grunnet, N. (1992b) Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of women with multiple miscarriages. Hum. Reprod., 7, 718-722.
33. Christiansen, O.B., Mathiesen, O., Husth, M. et al. (1993) Prognostic significance of maternal DR histocompatibility types in Danish women with recurrent miscarriages. Hum. Reprod., 8, 1843-1847.
34. Christiansen, O.B., Mathiesen, O., Husth, M. et al. (1994a) Placebo-controlled trial of active immunization with third party leukocytes in recurrent miscarriages. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 73, 261-268.
35. Christiansen, O.B., Rasmussen, K.L., Jersild, C. and Grunnet, N. (1994b) HLA class II alleles confer susceptibility to recurrent fetal losses in Danish women. Tissue Antigens, 44, 225-233.
36. Christiansen, O.B., Andersen, H.H., Højbjerre, M. et al. (1995a) Maternal HLA class II allogenotypes are markers for the predisposition to fetal losses in families of women with unexplained recurrent fetal loss. Eur. J. Immunogenet., 22, 323-334.
37. Christiansen, O.B., Mathiesen, O., Husth, M. et al. (1995b) Placebo-controlled trial of treatment of unexplained secondary recurrent spontaneous abortions and recurrent late spontaneous abortions with intravenous immunoglobulin. Hum. Reprod., 10, 2690-2695.
38. Cooper, D.W., Hill, J.A., Chesley, L.C. and Bryans, C.I. (1988) Genetic control of susceptibility to eclampsia and miscarriage. Br. J. Obstet. Gyneacol., 95, 644-653.
39. Costa, H.L.F.F., Moura, M.D., Ferriani, R.A. et al. (1993) Prevalence of anti-cardiolipin antibody in habitual aborters. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest., 36, 221-225.
40. Coulam, C.B. (1991) Epidemiology of recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 26, 23-27.
41. Coulam, C.B. (1992) Immunological tests in the evaluation of reproductive disorders: a critical review. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 1844-1851.
42. Coulam, C.B., Moore, S.B. and O'Fallon, W.M. (1987) Association between major histocompatibility antigen and reproductive performance. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. Microbiol., 14, 54-58.
43. + cells can predict pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 33, 40-46.
44. Coulam, C.B., Krysa, L., Stern, J.J. and Bustillo, M. (1995b) Intravenous immunoglobulin for treatment of recurrent pregnancy loss. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 34, 333-337.
45. Cowchock, F.S. and Smith, J.B. (1992) Predictors for live birth after unexplained spontaneous abortions: correlations between immunological test results, obstetric histories, and outcome of next pregnancy without treatment. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 1208-1212.
46. Cowchock, F.S., Smith, J. and Gocial, B. (1986) Antibodies to phospholipids and nuclear antigens in patients with repeated abortions. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 155, 1002-1010.
47. Cowchock, F.S., Rece, E.A., Balaban, D. et al. (1992) Repeated fetal losses associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: a collaborative randomized trial comparing prednisone with low-dose heparin treatment. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1318-1323.
48. Creasy, R. (1988) The cytogenetics of spontaneous abortion in humans. In Beard, R.W. and Sharp, F. (eds), Early Pregnancy Loss: Mechanisms and Treatment. Springer Verlag, London, UK, pp. 293-304.
49. Crosignani, P.G. and Rubin, B.L. (1991) Recurrent spontaneous abortion. The recommendations of the ESHRE workshop on 'Recurrent Spontaneous Abortion' held in Anacapri on September 9-11, 1990. Hum. Reprod., 6, 609-610.
50. Cunningham, D.S. and Tichenor, J.R. (1995) Decay-accelerating factor protects human trophoblast from complement-mediated attack. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 74, 156-161.
51. Daya, S., Ward, S. and Burrows, E. (1988) Progesterone profiles in luteal phase defect cycles and outcome of progesterone treatment in patients with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 158, 225-232.
52. Daya, S., Gunby, J. and Recurrent Miscarriage Immunotherapy Trialists Group (1994) The effectiveness of allogeneic leukocyte immunization in unexplained primary recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 32, 294-302.
53. De Castellarnau, C., Vila, L., Sancho, M.J. et al. (1983) Lupus anticoagulant, recurrent abortion and prostacyclin production by cultured smooth muscle cells. Lancet, ii, 1137-1138.
54. Doherty, D.G. and Donaldson, P.T. (1991) HLA-DRB and -DQB typing by a combination of serology, restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and oligonucleotide probing. Eur. J. Immunogenet., 18, 111-124.
55. Dokras, A., Sargent, I.L., Redman, C.W. and Barlow, D.H. (1993) Sera from women with unexplained infertility inhibit both mouse and human embryo growth in vitro. Fertil. Steril., 60, 285-292.
56. Dudley, D.J., Mitchell, M.D. and Branch, D.W. (1990) Pathophysiology of antiphospholipid antibodies: absence of prostaglandin-mediated effects on cultured endothelium. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 162, 953-959.
57. Dwyer, J.M. (1992) Manipulating the immune system with immune globulin. N. Engl. J. Med., 326, 107-116.
58. Edelman, P., Rouquette, A.M., Verdy, E. et al. (1986) Autoimmunity, fetal losses, lupus anticoagulant: beginning of systemic lupus erythematosus or new autoimmune entity with gynaeco-obstetrical expression? Hum. Reprod., 1, 295-297.
59. Ellis, S.A., Palmer, M.S. and McMichael, A.J. (1990) Human trophoblast and the choriocarcinoma cell line BeWo express a truncated HLA class I molecule. J. Immunol., 144, 731-735.
60. Ellish, N.J., Saboda, K., O.Connor, J. et al. (1996) A prospective study of early pregnancy loss. Hum. Reprod., 11, 406-412.
61. Emery, A.E.H. (1986) Methodology in Medical Genetics. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, UK, pp. 55-66.
62. Eroglu, G., Betz, G. and Torregano, C. (1992) Impact of histocompatibility antigens on pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1364-1369.
63. Fertility and Employment (1979) Danish Data Archives no. 0363. Odense University, Denmark.
64. Fritz, M.A. (1988) Inadequate luteal function and recurrent abortion: diagnosis and treatment of luteal phase deficiency. Semin. Reprod. Endocrinol., 6, 129-143.
65. Gatenby, P.A., Cameron, K., Simes, R.J. et al. (1993) Treatment of recurrent spontaneous abortion by immunization with paternal lymphocytes: results of a controlled trial. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 29, 88-94.
66. Gerencer, M. and Kastelan, A. (1983) The role of HLA-D region in feto-maternal interactions. Transplant. Proc., XV, 893-895.
67. German RSA/IVIG Group (1994) Intravenous immunoglobulin in the prevention of recurrent miscarriage. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 101, 1072-1177.
68. Gleicher, N., Pratt, D. and Dudkiewicz, A. (1993) What do we really know about autoantibody abnormalities and reproductive failure: a critical review. Autoimmunity, 16, 115-140.
69. Goldenberg, R.L., Mayberry, S.K., Copper, R.L. et al. (1993) Pregnancy outcome following a second-trimester loss. Obstet. Gynecol., 81, 444-446.
70. Goldstein, P., Berrier, J., Rosen, S. et al. (1989) A meta-analysis of randomized trials of progestational agents in pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 96, 265-274.
71. Greiss, F.C. and Mauzy, C.H. (1961) Genital abnormalities in women. An evaluation of diagnosis, incidence, and obstetric performance. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 82, 330-339.
72. Haddow, J.E., Rote, N.S., Dostal-Johnson, D. et al. (1991) Lack of an association between late fetal death and antiphospholipid antibody measurements in the second trimester. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 165, 1308-1312.
73. Harger, J.H., Archer, D.F., Marchese, S.G. et al. (1983) Etiology of recurrent pregnancy losses and outcome of subsequent pregnancies. Obstet. Gynecol., 62, 574-581.
74. Harger, J.H., Rabin, B.S. and Marchese, S.G. (1989) The prognostic value of antinuclear antibodies in women with recurrent pregnancy losses: a prospective controlled study. Obstet. Gynecol., 73, 419-424.
75. Harris, E.N., Chan, J.K.H., Asherson, R.A. et al. (1986) Thrombosis, recurrent fetal loss and thrombocytopenia: predictive value of the anti-cardiolipin antibody test. Arch. Intern. Med., 146, 2153-2156.
76. Harrison, R.F. (1992) Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in the management of recurrent abortion; results of a multi-centre placebo-controlled study. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol., 47, 175-179.
77. Hay, D. (1958) The diagnosis and significance of minor degrees of uterine abnormality in relation to pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 65, 557-582.
78. Higuchi, K., Aoki, K., Kimbara, T. et al. (1995) Suppression of natural killer cell activity by monocytes following immunotherapy for recurrent spontaneous aborters. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 33, 221-227.
79. Hill, J.A., Polgar, K., Harlow, B.L. and Anderson, D.J. (1992) Evidence of embryo- and trophoblast-toxic cellular immune response(s) in women with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1044-1052.
80. Hill, J.A., Melling, C.G. and Johnson, P.M. (1995a) Immunohistochemical studies of human uteroplacental tissues from first trimester spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 173, 90-96.
81. Hill, J.A., Polgar, K. and Anderson, D.J. (1995b) T-helper 1-type immunity to trophoblast in women with recurrent spontaneous abortion. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 273, 1933-1936.
82. Ho, H., Gill, T.J., Nsieh, R., Hsieh, H. and Lee, T. (1990) Sharing of human leukocyte antigens in primary and secondary recurrent spontaneous abortions. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 163, 179-188.
83. Ho, H., Gill, T.J., Hsieh, C., Yang, Y. and Lee, T. (1991a) The prevalence of recurrent spontaneous abortions, cancer, and congenital anomalies in the families of couples with recurrent spontaneous abortions or gestational trophoblastic tumors. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 165, 461-466.
84. Ho, H., Gill, T.J., Hsieh, H., Jiang, J., Lee, T. and Hsieh, C. (1991b) Immunotherapy for recurrent spontaneous abortion in a Chinese population. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 25, 10-15.
85. Houlihan, J.M., Biro, P.A., Harper, H.M. et al. (1995) The human amnion is a site of MHC class Ib expression: evidence for the expression of HLA-E and HLA-G. J. Immunol., 154, 5665-5674.
86. Howard, M.A., Firkin, B.C., Healy, D.L. and Choong, S.C. (1987) Lupus anticoagulant in women with multiple spontaneous miscarriage. Am. J. Hematol., 26, 175-178.
87. Huisjes, H.J. (1984) Spontaneous Abortion. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, UK.
88. Infante-Rivard, C., David, M., Gauthier, R. and Rivard, E. (1991) Lupus anticoagulants, anticardiolipin antibodies, and fetal loss - a case controlled study. N. Engl. J. Med., 325, 1063-1066.
89. James, K.E. (1973) Regression toward the mean in uncontrolled clinical studies. Biometrics, 29, 121-130.
90. Johnson, P.M., Chia, K.V., Risk, J.M. et al. (1988) Immunological and immunogenetic investigation of recurrent spontaneous abortion. Dis. Markers, 6, 163-171.
91. Jones, H.W. and Jones, G.E.S. (1953) Double uterus as an etiological factor in repeated abortion: indications for surgical repair. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 65, 325-339.
92. Karamardian, L.M. and Grimes, D.A. (1992) Luteal phase deficiency: effect of treatment on pregnancy rates. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 1391-1398.
93. Kilpatrick, D.C. (1992) Soluble interleukin-2 receptors in recurrent miscarriage and the effect of leukocyte immunotherapy. Immunol. Lett., 34, 201-206.
94. Kilpatrick, D.C. and Liston, W.A. (1993) Humoral immune response to lymphocyte antigens in early pregnancy and after leukocyte immunotherapy. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 13, 77-81.
95. Kilpatrick, D.C., Liston, W.A., Gibson, F. and Livingstone, J. (1989) Association between susceptibility to pre-eclampsia within families and HLA-DR4. Lancet, ii, 1063-1064.
96. Kilpatrick, D.C., Bevan, B.H. and Liston, W.A. (1995) Association between mannan binding protein deficiency and recurrent miscarriage. Mol. Hum. Reprod., 1, 2501-2505.
97. King, A. and Loke YW. (1990a) Uterine large granular lymphocytes: a possible role in embryonic implantation? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 162, 308-310.
98. King, A. and Loke, Y.W. (1990b) Human trophoblast and JEG choriocarcinoma cells are sensitive to lysis by IL-2 stimulated decidual NK cells. Cell. Immunol., 129, 435-448.
99. King, A., Birkby, C. and Loke, Y.W. (1989) Early human decidual cells exhibit NK activity against the K562 cell line but not against first trimester trophoblast. Cell. Immunol., 118, 337-344.
100. King, A., Boocock, C., Sharkey, A.M. et al. (1996) Evidence for the expression of HLA-C class I mRNA and protein by human first trimester trophoblast. J. Immunol., 156, 2068-2076.
101. Kirk, E.P., Choung, C.J., Coulam, C.B. and Williams, T.J. (1993) Pregnancy after metroplasty for uterine anomalies. Fertil. Steril., 59, 1164-1168.
102. Komlos, L., Zamir, R., Joshua, H. and Halbrecht, I. (1977) Common HLA antigens in couples with repeated abortions. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 7, 330-335.
103. Konidaris, S., Papadias, K., Gregoriou, O. et al. (1994) Immune dysfunction in patients with unexplained repeated abortions. Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet., 45, 221-226.
104. Kovats, S., Main, E., Libranch, C. et al. (1990) A class I antigen, expressed in human trophoblasts. Science, 248, 220-223.
105. Kwak, J.Y.H., Gilman-Sachs, A., Beaman, K.D. and Beer, A.E. (1992a) Autoantibodies in women with primary recurrent spontaneous abortion of unknown etiology. J. Reprod. Immunol., 22, 15-31.
106. Kwak, J.Y.H., Gilman-Sachs, A., Beaman, K.D. and Beer, A.E. (1992b) Reproductive outcome in women with recurrent spontaneous abortions of alloimmune and autoimmune causes: preconception versus postconception treatment. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1787-1795.
107. Kwak, J.Y.H., Beaman, K.D., Gilman-Sachs, A. et al. (1995) Up-regulated expression of CD56+, CD56+/CD16+, and CD19+ cells in peripheral blood lymphocytes in pregnant women with recurrent pregnancy losses. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 34, 93-99.
108. Laitinen, T., Koskimies, S. and Westman, P. (1993) Foeto-maternal compatibility in HLA-DR, -DQ, and -DP loci in Finnish couples suffering from recurrent spontaneous abortions. Eur. J. Immunogenet., 20, 249-258.
109. Lauritsen, J.G., Kristensen, T. and Grunnet, N. (1976) Depressed mixed lymphocyte reactivity in mothers with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 125, 35-39.
110. Lehmann, P.V., Sercarz, E.E., Forsthuber, T. et al. (1993) Determinant spreading and the dynamics of the autoimmune T-cell repertoire. Immunol. Today, 14, 203-208.
111. Ljunggren, H.-G. and Karre, K. (1990) In search of the 'missing self': MHC molecules and NK cell recognition. Immunol. Today, 11, 237-244.
112. Lockshin, M.D., Druzin, M.L. and Qamar, T. (1989) Prednisone does not prevent fetal death in women with antiphospholipid antibody. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 160, 439-443.
113. Lockwood, C.J., Romero, R., Feinberg, F. et al. (1989) The prevalence and biologic significance of lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies in a general obstetric population. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 161, 369-373.
114. Loizou, S., McCrea, J.D., Rudge, A.C. et al. (1985) Measurement of anticardiolipin antibodies by an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): standardization and quantitation of results. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 62, 738-745.
115. Loke, Y.W. and King, A. (1996) Immunology of human implantation: an evolutionary perspective. Hum. Reprod., 11, 283-286.
116. Lorenz, A., Blasczyk, R., Kuhn, U. et al. (1995) Strong association between the responder status of the FcK-II receptor and recurrent spontaneous abortion. Eur. J. Immunogenet., 22, 397-401.
117. Love, P.E. and Santoro, S.A. (1990) Antiphospholipid antibodies: anticardiolipin and the lupus anticoagulant in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and in non-SLE disorders. Ann. Int. Med., 112, 682-698.
118. Lubbe, W.F., Butler, W.S., Palmer, S.J. and Liggins, G.C. (1984) Lupus anticoagulant in pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 91, 357-363.
119. Maier, D.B. and Parke, A. (1989) Subclinical autoimmunity in recurrent aborters. Fertil. Steril., 51, 280-285.
120. Malpas, P. (1938) A study of abortion sequences. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Empire, 45, 932-949.
121. Mattila, K., Vaarala, O., Palosuo, T. et al. (1989) Serological response against cardiolipin and enterobacterial common antigen in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 51, 414-418.
122. McDonald, I.A. (1987) Cervical incompetence as a cause of spontaneous abortion. In Bennett, M.J. and Edmonds, D.K. (eds), Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK, pp. 168-192.
123. McIntyre, J.A. and Faulk, W.P. (1982) Allotypic trophoblast lymphocyte cross-reactive (TLX) cell surface antigens. Hum. Immunol., 4, 27-35.
124. McIntyre, J.A., Page Faulk, W., Nichols-Johnson, V.R. and Taylor, C.G. (1986) Immunologic testing and immunotherapy in recurrent spontaneous abortion. Obstet. Gynecol., 67, 169-175.
125. Medawar, P.B. (1953) Some immunological and endocrinological problems raised by the evolution of viviparity in vertebrates. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol., 7, 320-338.
126. Melk, A., Mueller-Eckhardt, G., Polten, B. et al. (1995) Diagnostic and prognostic significance of anticardiolipin antibodies with recurrent spontaneous abortions. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 33, 228-233.
127. Møller, E., Bøhme, J., Valugerdi, M.A. et al. (1990) Speculations on mechanisms of HLA associations with autoimmune diseases and the specificity of 'autoreactive' T-lymphocytes. Immunol. Rev., 118, 5-19.
128. Morales, P., Corell, A., Martinez-Laso, J. et al (1993) Three new HLA-G alleles and their linkage disequilibrium with HLA-A. Immunogenetics, 38, 323-331.
129. Mowbray, J.F., Gibbings, C., Liddell, H. et al. (1985) Controlled trial of treatment of recurrent spontaneous abortions by immunization with paternal cells. Lancet, i, 941-943.
130. MRC/RCOG Working Party on Cervical Cerclage (1993) Final report of the Medical Research Council/Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists multicentre randomised trial of cervical cerclage. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 100, 516-523.
131. Mueller-Eckhardt, G., Heine, O., Neppert, J. et al. (1989) Prevention of recurrent spontaneous abortion by intravenous immunoglobulin. Vox Sang., 56, 151-154.
132. Mueller-Eckhardt, G., Mallmann, P., Neppert, J. et al. (1994) Immunogenetic and serological investigations in nonpregnant and in pregnant women with a history of recurrent spontaneous abortions. J. Reprod. Immunol., 27, 95-109.
133. Neppert, J., Mueller-Eckhardt, G., Neumeyer, H. et al. (1989) Pregnancy-maintaining antibodies: Workshop report (Giessen, 1988). J. Reprod. Immunol., 15, 159-167.
134. Oksenberg, J.R., Persitz, E., Amar, A. and Brautbar, C. (1984) Maternal-paternal histocompatibility: lack of association with habitual abortions. Fertil. Steril., 42, 389-395.
135. Opelz, G., Sengar, D.P.S., Mickey, M.R. and Terasaki, P.I. (1973) Effect of blood transfusions in subsequent kidney transplants. Transplant. Proc., 5, 253-259.
136. Out, H.J., Bruinse, H.W., Christiaens, G.C.M.L. et al. (1991) Prevalence of antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with fetal loss. Ann. Rheum. Dis., 50, 553-557.
137. Out, H.J., Bruinse, H.W., Christiaens, G.C.M.L. et al. (1992) A prospective, controlled multicenter study on the obstetric risks of pregnant women with antiphospholipid antibodies. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 26-32.
138. Parazzini, F., Acaia, B., Faden, D. et al. (1991) Antiphospholipid antibodies and recurrent abortion. Obstet. Gynecol., 77, 854-858.
139. Parham, P. (1995) Antigen presentation by class I major histocompatibility complex molecules: a context for thinking about HLA-G. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 34, 10-19.
140. Parke, A.L., Wilson, D. and Maier, D. (1991) The prevalence of antiphospholipid antibodies in women with recurrent spontaneous abortion, women with successful pregnancies, and women who have never been pregnant. Arthritis Rheum., 34, 1231-1235.
141. Pattison, N.S., Chamley, L.W., McKay, E.J. et al. (1993) Antiphospholipid antibodies in pregnancy: prevalence and clinical associations. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 100, 909-913.
142. Peaceman, A.M., Silver, R.K., MacGregor, S.N. and Socol, M.L. (1992) Interlaboratory variation in antiphospholipid antibody testing. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1780-1787.
143. Petri, M., Golbus, M., Anderson, R., Whiting-O'Keefe, Q. et al. (1987) Antinuclear antibody, lupus anticoagulant and cardiolipin antibody in women with idiopathic habitual abortion. Arthritis Rheum., 30, 601-606.
144. Plouffe, L., White, E.W., Tho, S.P. et al. (1992) Etiological factors of recurrent abortion and subsequent reproductive performance of couples: have we made any progress in the past 10 years? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 313-321.
145. Power, D.A., Catto, G.R.D., Mason, R.J. et al. (1983) The fetus as an allograft: evidence for protective antibodies to HLA-linked paternal antigens. Lancet, ii, 701-704.
146. Quenby, S. and Farquharson, R.G. (1993) Predicting recurring miscarriage: what is important? Obstet. Gynecol., 82, 132-138.
147. Rai, R.S., Regan, L., Clifford, K. et al. (1995) Antiphospholipid antibodies and β2-glycoprotein-1 in 500 women with recurrent miscarriage: results of a comprehensive screening approach. Hum. Reprod., 10, 2001-2005.
148. Rai, R., Clifford, K. and Regan, L. (1996) The modern preventive treatment of recurrent miscarriage. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 103, 106-110.
149. Recurrent Miscarriage Immunotherapy Trialists Group (1994) Worldwide collaborative observational study and meta-analysis on allogeneic leukocyte immunotherapy for recurrent spontaneous abortion. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 32, 55-72.
150. Redman, C.W.G. (1990) Are there immunologically mediated abortions? If so, which mechanisms? Res. Immunol., 141, 169-175.
151. Regan, L., Braude, P.R. and Trembath, P.L. (1989) Influence of past reproductive performance on risk of spontaneous abortion. Br. Med. J., 299, 541-545.
152. Regan, L., Owen, E.J. and Jacobs, H.S. (1990) Hypersecretion of luteinising hormone, infertility and miscarriage. Lancet, 336, 1141-1144.
153. Regan, L., Braude, P.R. and Hill, D.P. (1991) A prospective study of the incidence, time of appearance and significance of anti-paternal lymphocytotoxic antibodies in human pregnancy. Hum. Reprod., 6, 294-298.
154. Rock, J.A. and Jones, H.W. (1977) The clinical management of double uterus. Fertil. Steril., 28, 788-806.
155. Rocklin, R.E., Kitzmiller, J.L., Carpenter, C.B. et al. (1976) Maternal-fetal relation. Absence of an immunological blocking factor from the serum of women with chronic abortions. N. Engl. J. Med., 295, 1209-1213.
156. Rocklin, R.E., Kitzmiller, J.L. and Garvoy, M.R. (1982) Maternal-fetal relation. II. Further characterization of an immunological blocking factor that develops during pregnancy. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 22, 305-315.
157. Ronda, N., Hurez, V. and Kazatchkine, M.D. (1993) Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy of autoimmune and systemic inflammatory diseases. Vox Sang., 64, 65-72.
158. Rossove, M.H., Tabsh, K., Wasserstrum, N. et al. (1990) Heparin therapy for pregnant women with lupus anticoagulant or anticardiolipin antibodies. Obstet. Gynecol., 75, 630-634
159. Rote, N.S., Walter, A. and Lyden, T.W. (1992) Antiphospholipid antibodies - lobsters or red herrings? Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 28, 31-37.
160. Rotter, J.I., Vadheim, C.M. and Rimoin, D.L. (1992) Diabetes mellitus. In King, R. A., Rotter, J.I. and Motulsky, A.G. (eds), The Genetic Basis of Common Diseases. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, pp. 413-481.
161. Rush, R.W., Isaacs, S., McPherson, K. et al. (1984) A randomized controlled trial of cervical cerclage in women at high risk of spontaneous pre-term delivery. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 91, 724-730.
162. Sargent, I.L., Wilkins, T. and Redman, C.W.G. (1988) Maternal immune responses to the foetus in early pregnancy and recurrent miscarriage. Lancet, ii, 1099-1104.
163. Schmidt, C.M., Ehlenfeldt, R.G., Athanasiou, M.C. et al. (1993) Extraembryonic expression of the human MHC class I gene HLA-G in transgenic mice: evidence for a positive regulatory region located 1 kilobase 5′ to the start site of transcription. J. Immunol., 151, 2633-2645.
164. Silver, R.K., MacGregor, S.N., Sholl, J.S. et al. (1993) Comparative trial of prednisone plus aspirin versus aspirin alone in the treatment of anticardiolipin antibody-positive obstetric patients. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 169, 1411-1417.
165. Singh, A., Dantas, Z.N., Stone, S.S. and Asch, R.H. (1995) Presence of thyroid antibodies in early reproductive failure: biochemical versus clinical pregnancies. Fertil. Steril., 63, 277-281.
166. Smith, J.B. and Cowchock, F.S. (1988) Immunological studies in recurrent spontaneous abortion: effects of immunization of women with paternal mononuclear cells on lymphocytotoxic and mixed lymphocyte reaction blocking antibodies and correlation with sharing of HLA antigens and pregnancy outcome. J. Reprod. Immunol., 14, 99-113.
167. Stagnaro-Green, A., Roman, S.H., Cobin, R. et al. (1990) Detection of at-risk pregnancy by means of highly sensitive assays for thyroid autoantibodies. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 264, 1422-1425.
168. Stampe Sørensen, S. (1988) Estimated prevalence of Müllerian anomalies. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand., 67, 387-392.
169. Stern, J. and Coulam, C.B. (1992) Mechanisms of recurrent spontaneous abortion. I. Ultrasonographic findings. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 166, 1844-1852.
170. Stimson, W.H., Strachan, A.F. and Shepherd, A. (1979) Studies on the maternal immune response to placental antigens: absence of a blocking factor from the blood of abortion-prone women. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 86, 41-45.
171. Stirrat, G.M. (1990) Recurrent miscarriage. II. Clinical associations, causes, and management. Lancet, 336, 728-733.
172. Stirrat, G.M. (1992) Recurrent spontaneous abortion. In Coulam, C.B., Page Faulk, W.P. and McIntyre, J.A. (eds), Immunological Obstetrics. Norton Medical Books, New York, NY, USA, pp. 357-376.
173. Strassmann, P. (1907) Die operative Vereinigung eines Doppelten Uterus. Zentralbl. Gynaek., 31, 1322-1335.
174. Stray-Pedersen, B. and Lorentzen-Styr, A. (1979) The prevalence of toxoplasma antibodies among 11, 736 pregnant women in Norway. Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 11, 159-165.
175. Stray-Pedersen, B. and Stray-Pedersen, S. (1984) Etiological factors and subsequent reproductive performance in 195 couples with a prior history of habitual abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 148, 140-146.
176. Sunderland, C.A., Najem, M., Mason, D.Y. et al. (1981) The expression of major histocompatibility antigens by human chorionic villi. J. Reprod. Immunol., 3, 323-331.
177. Takakuwa, K., Kanazawa, K. and Takeuchi, S. (1986) Production of blocking antibodies by vaccination with husband's lymphocytes in unexplained recurrent aborters: the role in successful pregnancy. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. Microbiol., 10, 1-9.
178. Takakuwa, K., Ueda, H., Goto, S. et al. (1991) Influence of immunotherapy on the cellular immunity of unexplained recurrent aborters. J. Reprod. Immunol., 20, 153-163.
179. Takakuwa, K., Higashino, M., Ueda, H. et al. (1992) Significant compatibility does not exist at the HLA-DQB gene locus in couples with unexplained recurrent abortions. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 28, 12-16.
180. Taylor, C.G. and Faulk, W.P. (1981) Prevention of recurrent abortion with leucocyte transfusions. Lancet, ii, 68-70.
181. Taylor, M., Gauchi, M.N. and Buchanan, R.R.C. (1990) The lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin antibodies and recurrent miscarriage. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 23, 33-36.
182. Tharapel, A.T., Tharapel, S.A. and Bannerman, R.M. (1985) Recurrent pregnancy losses and parental chromosome abnormalities: a review. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 92, 899-914.
183. Theofilopoulos, A.N. (1995) The basis of autoimmunity. Part II: genetic predisposition. Immunol. Today, 16, 150-159.
184. Todd, J.A., Acha-Orbea, H., Bell, J.I. et al. (1988) A molecular basis for MHC class II associated autoimmunity. Science, 240, 1003-1009.
185. Tulppala, M., Palosuo, T., Ramsay, T. et al. (1993) A prospective study of 63 couples with a' history of recurrent spontaneous abortion: contributing factors and outcome of subsequent pregnancies. Hum. Reprod., 8, 764-770.
186. Ulbrecht, M., Honka, T., Person, S. et al. (1992) The HLA-E gene encodes two differentially regulated transcripts and a cell surface protein. J. Immunol., 149, 2945-2953.
187. Unander, A.M. and Lindholm, A. (1986) Transfusions of leukocyte-rich erythrocyte concentrates: a successful treatment in selected cases of habitual abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 154, 516-520.
188. Unander, A.M., Lindholm, A. and Olding, L.B. (1985) Blood transfusions generate previously absent/weak blocking antibody in women with habitual abortion. Fertil. Steril., 44, 766-771.
189. Unander, A.M., Norberg, R., Hahn, L. and Årfors, L. (1987) Anticardiolipin antibodies and complement in ninety-nine women with habitual abortion. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 156, 114-119.
190. van der Ven, K. and Ober, C. (1994) HLA-G polymorphisms in African-Americans. J. Immunol., 153, 5628-5633.
191. Vince, G.S. and Johnson, P.M. (1995) Materno-fetal immunobiology in normal pregnancy and its possible failure in recurrent spontaneous abortion. In Simon, C. and Pellicer, A. (eds), Regulators of Human Implantation. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 107-113.
192. Warburton, D. and Strobino, B. (1987) Recurrent spontaneous abortion. In Bennett, M.J. and Edmonds, D.K. (eds), Spontaneous and Recurrent Abortion. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, UK, pp. 193-213.
193. H2 phenomenon? Immunol. Today, 14, 353-356.
194. Wilcox, A.J., Weinberg, C.R., O'Connor, J.F. et al. (1988) Incidence of early loss of pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med., 319, 188-194.
195. Winisdoerffer, G., Lazar, P., Papiernik, E. et al. (1989) The controlled trial of cervical cerclage. In Papiernik, E., Keith, L.G., Bouyer, J. et al. (eds), Effective prevention of pre-term birth: The French experience measured at Haguenau. 25, 139-147.
196. Workshop Reports from the Tenth Anniversary Meeting of the American Society for the Immunology of Reproduction (1991) Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 25, 1-9.
197. Xu, L., Chang, V., Murphy, A. et al. (1990) Antinuclear antibodies in sera of patients with recurrent pregnancy wastage. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 163, 1493-1497.
198. Zanelli, E., Gonzalez-Gay, M.A. and David, C.S. (1995) Could HLA-DRB1 be a protective locus in rheumatoid arthritis? Immunol. Today, 16, 274-278.