A thermodynamic model for water column precipitation of siderite in the Plio-Pleistocene Black Sea

American Journal of Science

Volumn 296, Issue 5, 1996, Pages 506-548

  Rajan, S ^a   Mackenzie, Fred T ^a   Glenn, Craig R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION; PLEISTOCENE; PLIOCENE; PRECIPITATION; SIDERITE; THERMODYNAMICS;

BLACK SEA;

EID: 0029851849     PISSN: 00029599     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2475/ajs.296.5.506     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Aharon, P., 1988, A stable isotopic study of magnesites from the Rum Jungle Uranium Field, Australia: implications for the origin of stratabound massive magnesites: Chemical Geology, v. 69, p. 127-145.
2. Anthony, R. S., 1977, Iron-rich rhythmically laminated sediments in Lake of the Clouds, northeastern Minnesota: Limnology and Oceanography, v. 22, p. 45-54.
3. Arnold, R. G., Di Christina, T. J., and Hoffmann, M. R., 1988, Dissimilative Fe (III) reduction by Pseudomonas sp 200 - inhibition studies: Applied Environmental Microbiology, v. 52, p. 281-294.
4. Bahrig, B., 1988, Paleoenvironment information from deep water siderite (Lake of Laach, West Germany), in Fleet, A. J., Kelts, K., and Talbot, M. R., editors, Lacustrine Petroleum Source Rocks, Geological Society of London Special Publication no. 40: Oxford, Blackwell Scientific, p. 153-158.
5. _ 1989. Stable isotope composition of siderite as an indicator of the paleoenvironmental history of oil shale lakes: Palaeogeography, Paleoclimatology, Palaeoccology, v. 70, p. 139-151.
6. Balkas, T., Dechev, G., Mihnea, R., Serbanescu, O., and Unluata, U., 1990, State of the marine environment in the Black Sea region: UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies, 124, p. 1-13.
7. Beck, K. C., Reuter, J. H., and Perdue, E. M., 1974, Organic and inorganic geochemistry of some coastal plain rivers of the southeastern United States: Geochimica et Cosinochimica Acta, v. 38, p. 341-364.
8. Bernard, A., and Symonds, R B., 1989, The significance of siderite in the sediments from Lake Nyos, Cameroon: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 39, p. 187-194.
9. Berner, R. A., 1981, A new geochemical classification of sedimentary environments: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 51, p. 359-365.
10. Bertoldi, R., Rio, D., and Thunell, R., 1989, Pliocene-Pleistocene vegetational and climatic evolution of the South-Central Mediterranean: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 72, p. 263-275.
11. Beukes, N. J., and Klein, C., 1992, Models for iron-formation deposition, in Schopf, J. W., and Klein, C., editors, The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study: Cambridge, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press, p. 147-151.
12. Beukes, N.J., Klein, C., Kaufman, A. J., and Hayes, J. M., 1990, Carbonate petrography, kerogen distribution, and carbon and oxygen isotope variations in an early Proterozoic transition from limestone to iron-formation deposition, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa: Economic Geology, v. 85, p. 663-690.
13. Bruno, J., Wersin, P., and Stumm, W., 1992, On the influence of carbonate in mineral dissolution. II. The stability of FeCO3(s) at 25°C and 1 atm. total pressure: Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta, v. 56, p. 1149-1155.
14. Burton, E., Machel, H. G., and Qi, J., 1993, Thermodynamic constraints on anomalous magnetization in shallow and deep hydrocarbon seepage environments: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication, 49, p. 193-207.
15. 2-siderite: Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta, v. 52, p. 2445-2450.
16. Chepalyga, A. L., 1984, Inland sea basins, in Velichko, A. A., editor, Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union: Minneapolis, University of Minnessotta Press, p. 229-247.
17. Cole, J. J., Caraco, N. F., Kling, G. W., and Kratz, T. K., 1994, Carbon dioxide supersaturation in the surface waters of lakes: Science, v. 265, p. 1568-1570
18. Coleman, M. L., 1985, Geochemistry of diagenetic non-silicate minerals: Kinetic considerations: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, (A), v. 315, p. 39-56.
19. Cortecci, G., and Frizzo, P., 1993, Origin of siderite deposits from the Lombardy Valleys, northern Italy: a carbon, oxygen and strontium isotope study: Chemical Geology, v. 105, p. 293-303.
20. Curtis, C. D., 1967, Diagenetic iron minerals in some British Carboniferous sediments: Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta, v. 31, p. 2109-2123.
21. _ 1977. Sedimentary geochemistry: Environments and processes dominated by involvement of an aqueous phase: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, (A), v. 286, p. 353-372.
22. Curtis, C. D., 1987, Mineralogical consequences of organic matter degradation in sediments: Inorganic/organic diagenesis, in Leggett, J. K., and Zutta, G. G., editors, Marine Clastic Sedimentology: London, Graham & Trotman, p. 108-123.
23. Curtis, C. D., and Spears, D. A., 1968, The formation of sedimentary iron minerals: Economic Geology, v. 63, p. 257-270.
24. Dahm, H. D., 1956, Diatomeenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte der westlichen Ostsee: Meyniana, v. 5, p. 7-50.
25. Davison, W., 1993, Iron and manganese in lakes: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 34, p. 119-163.
26. Degens, E. T., and Paluska, A., 1979, Tectonic and climatic pulses recorded in Quaternary sediments of the Black Sea region: Sedimentary Geology, v. 23, p. 149-163.
27. Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A., editors, 1974, The Black Sea - Geology, Chemistry, and Biology: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 20, 633 p.
28. 13 contents of carbonates from Deep Sea Drilling Sites in the Black Sea, in Ross, D. A., Neprochnov, Y. P., et al., editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, D. C., United States Government Printing Office, p. 617-623.
29. Edwards, A. M. C., and Liss, P. S., 1973, Evidence for buffering of dissolved silicon in fresh waters: Nature, v. 243, p. 341-342.
30. Emelyanov, E. M., Lisitzin, A. P., Shimkus, K. M., Trimonis, E. S., Lukashev, V. K., Lukashin, V. K., Mitropolskiy, A. Yu., Pilipchuk, M. F., Shirshov, P. P., 1978, Geochemistry of late Cenozoic sediments of the Black Sea, Leg 42, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, D.C., United States Government Printing Office, p. 543-605.
31. Fonselius, S. N., 1974, Phosphorus in Black Sea, in Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A., editors, The Black Sea - Geology, Chemistry, and Biology: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 20, p. 144-150.
32. Fritz, P., Binda, P. L., Folinsbee, F. E., and Krouse, H. R., 1971. Isotopic composition of diagenetic siderites from Cretaceous sediments in western Canada: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 41, p. 282-288.
33. Froelich, P. N., Klinkhammer, G. P., Bender, M. L., Luedtke, N. A., Heath, G. R., Cullen, D., Dauphin, P., Hammond, D., Hartman, B., and Maynard, V., 1979, Early oxidation of organic matter in pelagic sediments of the equatorial Atlantic: suboxic diagenesis: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 43, p. 1075-1090.
34. Garrels, R. M., 1987, A model for the deposition of the microbanded Precambrian iron formations: American Journal of Science, v. 287, p. 81-106.
35. _ 1988, Reply - A model for the deposition of the microbanded Precambrian Iron Formations: American Journal of Science, v. 288, p. 669-673.
36. Garrels, R. M., and Christ, C. L., 1965, Solutions, Minerals, and Equilibria: San Francisco, Freeman, Cooper & Company, 450 p.
37. Garrels, R. M., and Mackenzie, F. T., 1967, Origin of the chemical compositions of some springs and lakes, in Equilibrium Concepts in Natural Water Systems: American Chemical Society, Advances in Chemistry Series v. 67, p. 222-242.
38. _ 1971, Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks: New York, W. W. Norton and Co., 397 p.
39. _ 1972, A quantitative model for the sedimentary rock cycle: Marine Chemistry, v. 1, p. 22-41.
40. Garrels, R. M., and Thompson, M. E., 1962, A chemical model for sea water at 25°C and one atmosphere total pressure: American Journal of Science, v. 260, p. 57-66.
41. Gautier, D. L., 1982, Siderite concretions: indicators of early diagenesis in the Gammon Shale (Cretaceous): Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 52, p. 859-871.
42. Ghosh, M. M., O'Connor, J. T., and Engelbrecht, R. S., 1967, Bathophenanthroline method for the determination of ferrous iron: Journal of American Water Works Association, v. 59, p. 897-905.
43. Glenn, C. R., and Arthur, M. A., 1990, Anatomy and origin of a Cretaceous phosphorite-greensand giant, Egypt: Sedimentology, v. 37, p. 123-154.
44. Glenn, C. R., Rajan, S., Hsü, K. J., and Popp, B. N., 1992, Cyclic sedimentation, paleoclimate and paleoceanography of the Plio-Pleistocene Black Sea: International Geological Congress, 29th, Kyoto, Japan, Abstracts, v. 2, p. 287.
45. Golyshev, S. I., Padalko, N. L., and Pechenkin, S. A., 1981, Fractionation of stable oxygen and carbon isotopes in carbonate systems: Geokhimiya, v. 10, p. 1427-1441.
46. Hardie, L. A., and Eugster, H. P., 1970, The evolution of closed-basin brines: Mineralogical Society of America Special Paper, v. 3, p. 273-290.
47. Harland, W. B., Armstrong, R. L., Cox, A. V., Craig, L. E., Smith, A. G., and Smith, D. G., 1990, A Geologic Time Scale, 1989: Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 263 p.
48. Helgeson, H. C., 1968, Evaluation of irreversible reactions in geochemical processes involving minerals and aqueous solutions - I. Themodynamic relations: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 32, p. 853-877.
49. Helgeson, H. C., Delaney, J. M., Nesbitt, W. H., and Bird, D. K., 1978, Summary and critique of the thermodynamic properties of rock-forming minerals: American Journal of Science, v. 278A, p. 44-51.
50. Helgeson, H. C., Garrels, R. M., and Mackenzie, F. T., 1969, Evaluation of irreversible reactions in geochemical processes involving minerals and aqueous solutions - 11. Applications: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 33, p. 455-481.
51. Hering, J. G., and Stumm, W., 1990, Oxidative and reductive dissolution of minerals, in Hochella, M. F., and White, A. F., editors, Mineral-Water Interface Geochemistry: Mineralogical Society of America, Reviews in Mineralogy; v. 23, p. 427-465.
52. Hsü, K. J., 1978a, Stratigraphy of the lacustrine sedimentation in the Black Sea, in Ross, D. A., Neprochnov, Y. P., and others, editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, United States Government Printing Office, p. 509-524.
53. _ 1978b, When the Black Sea was drained: Scientific American, v. 238, p. 53-63.
54. Hsü, K. J., and Giovanoli, F., 1979, Messian event in the Black Sea: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoccology, v. 29, p. 75-93.
55. Hsü, K. J., and Kelts, K., 1978, Late Neogene chemical sediments in the Black Sea, in Matter, A., and Tucker, M. E., editors, Modern and Ancient Lake Sediments: International Association of Sedimentologists, Special Publications v. 2: Oxford, Blackwell, p. 129-145
56. Hue, A. Y., Durand, B., Monin, J. C., 1978, Humic compounds and kerogens in cores from Black Sea sediments. Leg 42B - Holes 379A, B, and 380A, in Ross, D. A., Neprochnov, Y. P., and others, editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, D. C., United States Government Printing Office, p. 737-748.
57. Irwin, H., Curtis, C., and Coleman, M., 1977, Isotopic evidence for source of diagenetic carbonates formed during burial of organic-rich sediments: Nature, v. 269, p. 209-213.
58. Jakobsen, R., and Postma, D., 1989, Formation and solid solution behavior of Carhodochrosites in marine muds of the Baltic deeps: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 53, p. 2639-2648.
59. James, H. L., 1966, Chemistry of the iron-rich sedimentary rocks: United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 440-W, 61 p.
60. Klein, C., and Beukes, N. J., 1989, Geochemistry and sedimentology of a faciès transition from limestone to iron-formation deposition in the early Proterozoic Transvaal Super-group, South Africa: Economic Geology, v. 84, p. 1733-1774.
61. Koenings, J. P., 1976, In situ experiments on the dissolved and colloidal state of iron in an acid bog lake: Limnology and Oceanography, v. 21, p. 674-683.
62. Lee, R. W., 1985, Geochemistry of groundwater in Cretaceous sediments of the southeastern Coastal Plain, eastern Mississippi and western Alabama: Water Resources Research, v. 21, p. 1545-1556.
63. Lee, R. W., and Strickland, D. J., 1988, Geochemistry of groundwater in Tertiary and Cretaceous sediments of the southeastern Coastal Plain in Lastern Georgia, South Carolina, and southeastern North Carolina: Water Resources Research, v. 24, p. 291-303.
64. Leuchs, W., and Obermann, P., 1992, Anoxic reaction zones in an aquifer influenced by increasing nitrate and sulfate contents, in Matthess, G., Frimmel, F. H., Hirsch, P., Schulz, H. D., and Usdowski, E., editors, Progress in Hydro-Geochemistry: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 201-212.
65. Matsumoto, R., and Iijima, A., 1981, Origin and diagenetic evolution of Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates in some coalfields of Japan: Sedimentology, v. 28, p. 239-259.
66. Mayer, L. M., and Gloss, S. P., 1980, Buffering of silica and phosphate in a turbid river: Limnology and Oceanography, v. 25, p. 12-22.
67. Maynard, J. B., 1982, Extension of Berner's "New Geochemical Classification of Sedimentary Environments" to ancient sediments: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 52, p. 1325-1331.
68. _ 1983, Geochemistry of Sedimentary Ore Deposits: New York, Springer-Verlag, 305 p.
69. McKnight, D. M., Kimball, B. A., and Bencala, K. E., 1988, Iron photoreduction and oxidation in an acidic mountain stream: Science, v. 240, p. 637-640.
70. Miles, C. J., and Brezonik, P. L., 1981, Oxygen consumption in humic-colored waters by a photochemical ferrous-ferric catalytic cycle: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 15, p. 1089-1095.
71. Moore, S. E., Ferrell, R. E., Jr., and Aharon, P., 1992, Diagenetic siderite and other ferroan carbonates in a modern subsiding marsh sequence: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 62, p. 357-366.
72. Morgan, J. J., and Stumm, 1964, Advances in water pollution research, in Proceedings of the Second Conference on Water Pollution Research: Elmsford, New York, Pergamon Press.
73. Morse, J. W., and Mackenzie, F. T., 1990, Geochemistry of Sedimentary Carbonates: New-York, Elsevier Scientific Publications Company, 696 p.
74. Mozley, P. S., and Carothers, W. W., 1992, elemental and isotopic composition of siderite in the Kuparuk Formation, Alaska: Effect of microbial activity and water/sediment interaction on early pore-water chemistry: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 62, p. 681-692.
75. Mucci, A., 1988, Manganese uptake during calcite precipitation from seawater: Conditions leading to the formation of a pseudokutnahorite: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 52, p. 1859-1868.
76. Murray, J. W., Jannasch, H. W., Honjo, S., Anderson, R. F., Reeburg, W. S., Top, Z., Friederich, G. E., Codispoti, L. A., and Izdar, E., 1989, Unexpected changes in the oxic/anoxic interface in the Black Sea: Nature, v. 338, p. 411-413.
77. Nordstrom, D. K., Plummer, L. N., Langmuir, D., Busenberg, E., May, H. M., Jones, B. F., and Parkhurst, D. L., 1990, Revised chemical equilibrium data for major water-mineral reactions and their limitations, in Melchior, D. C., and Bassett, R. C., editors. Chemical Modeling of Aqueous Systems II: American Chemical Society, Symposium Series 416, Washington, D.C., p. 398-413.
78. Perdue, E. M., 1979, Solution thermochemistry of humic substances: Acid-base equilibria of river water humic substances, in Jenne, E. A., editor, Chemical Modeling in Aqueous Systems: Speciation, Sorption, Solubility, and Kinetics: American Chemical Society Symposium Series 93, Washington, D.C., American Chemical Society, p. 99-114.
79. Perdue, E. M., Beck, K. C., and Reuter, J. H., 1976, Organic complexes of iron and aluminium in natural waters: Nature, v. 260, p. 418-420.
80. 2O: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 46, p. 1011-1040.
81. Postma, D., 1977, The occurrence and chemical composition of Recent Fe-rich mixed carbonates in a river bog: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 47, p. 1089-1098.
82. _ 1981, Formation of siderite and vivianite and the pore-water composition of a Recent bog sediment in Denmark: Chemical Geology, v. 31, p. 225-244.
83. _ 1982, Pyrite and siderite formation in brackish and freshwater swamp sediments: American Journal of Science, v. 282, p. 1151-1183.
84. Pye, K., Dickson, J. A. D., Schiavon, N., Coleman, M. L., and Cox, M., 1990, Formation of siderite-Mg-calcite-iron sulphide concretions in intertidal marsh and sandflat sediments, north Norfolk, England: Sedimentology, v. 37, p. 325-343.
85. Reuter, J. H., 1977, Importance of heavy metal-organic matter interactions in natural waters: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 41, p. 325-334.
86. 2 Pascals) pressure and at higher temperatures: United States Geological Survey Bulletin 1452, 456 p.
87. Ross, D. A., 1978, Summary of results of Black Sea drilling, in Ross, D. A., and Neprochnov, Y. P., editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. Printing Office, p. 1149-1177.
88. Scholten, R., 1974, Role of the Bosporus in the Black sea chemistry and sedimentation, in Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A., editors, The Black Sea - Geology, Chemistry and Biology: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 20, p. 115-126.
89. Schrader, H. J., 1978, Quaternary through Neogene history of the Black Sea, deduced from the paleoecology of diatoms, silicofiagellates, ebridians and chrysomonads, in Ross, D. A., Neprochnov, Y. P., and others, editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington D.C., United States Government Printing Office, p. 789-901.
90. _ 1979, Quaternary paleoclimatology of the Black Sea basin: Sedimentary Geology, v. 23, p. 165-180.
91. Shapiro, J., 1964, Effect of yellow organic acids on iron and other metals in water: Journal of American Water Works Association, v. 56, p. 1062-1082.
92. Shatilova, I. I., Macharadze, N. V., and Davitashvili, L. S., 1991, The Pliocene climate of western Georgia, in Pliocene Climates of the Northern Hemisphere, Joint US/USSR Workshop on Pliocene Paleoclimates, Moscow, April, 1990, (Abstracts published by United States Geological Survey, Open-File Report, p. 35-37).
93. Shatilova, I. I., and Mchedlishvili, N. Sh., 1980, Palynological complexes of Chauda sediments of the West Georgia and their stratigraphic significance (in Russian): Tbilisi, Metsniereba, 96 p.
94. Shock, E. L., and Helgeson, H. C., 1988, Calculation of the thermodynamic and transport properties of aqeous species at high pressures and temperatures: Correlation algorithms for ion species and equation of state predictions to 5 kb and 1000°C; Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 52, p. 2009-2036.
95. Sholkovitz, E. R., 1976, Flocculation of dissolved organic and inorganic matter: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 40, p. 831-845.
96. Sigurdsson, H., Devine, J. D., Tehoua, F. M., Presser, T. S., Pringle, M. K. W., and Evans, W. C., 1987, Origin of the lethal gas burst from Lake Monoun, Cameroun: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermeral Research, v. 31, p. 1-16.
97. Sirenko, N. A., and Turlo, S. I., 1986, Development of the Ukrainian soil and vegetation through the Pliocene and the Pleistocene: Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 180 p.
98. Smith, S. V., and Hollibaugh, J. T., 1993, Coastal metabolism and the oceanic organic carbon balance: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 31, p. 75-89.
99. Smith, S. V., and Mackenzie, F. T., 1987, The ocean as a net heterotrophic system: Implications from the carbon biogeochemical cycle: Global Biogeochemical Cycles, v. 1, p. 187-198.
100. Spell, T. L., and McDougall, I., 1992, Revisions to the age of the Brunhes-Matuyama boundary and the Pleistocene geomagnetic polarity time scale : Geophysical Research Letters, v. 19, p. 1181-1184.
101. Spiro, B., Gibson, P. J., and Shaw, H. F., 1993, Eogenetic siderites in lacustrine oil shales from Queensland, Australia, a stable isotope study: Chemical Geology, v. 106, p. 415-427.
102. Stoffers, P., and Müller, G., 1978, Mineralogy and lithofacies of Black Sea sediments, Leg 42, Part 2 Deep Sea Drilling Project, in Ross, D. A., Neproclinov, Y. P., and others, editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, D. C., United States Government Printing Office, p. 1149-1177.
103. Suc, J. P., 1984. Origin and evolution of the Mediterranean vegetation and climate in Europe: Nature, v. 307, p. 429-432.
104. Sulzerber, B., Suter, D., Siffert, C., Banwart, S., and Stumm, W., 1989, Dissolution of Fe(III)(hydr)oxides in natural waters; laboratory assessment on the kinetics controlled by surface coordination: Marine Chemistry, v. 28, p. 127-144.
105. Suter, D., Siffert, C., Sulzerberger, B., and Stumm, W., 1988, Catalytic dissolution of Iron(III)(hydr)oxides by oxalic acid in the presence of Fe(II): Naturwissenschaften, v. 75, p. 571-573.
106. Tardy, Y., and Garrels, R M., 1976, Prediction of Gibbs energies of formation - I. Relationships among Gibbs energies of formation of hydroxides, oxides, and aqueous ions: Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta, v. 40, p. 1051-1056.
107. Theis, T. L., and Singer, P. C., 1973, The stabilization of ferrous iron by organic compounds in natural waters, in Singer, P. C., editor, Trace Metals and Metal-Organic Interactions in Natural Waters: Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, p. 303-320.
108. _ 1974, Complexation of iron (II) by organic matter and its effect on iron (II) oxygenation: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 8, p. 569-573.
109. Thunell, R., Rio, D., Sprovieri, R., and Vergnaud-Grazzini, C., 1991, An overview of the post-Messinian paleoenvironmental history of the western Mediterranean: Paleoceanography, v. 6, p. 143-164.
110. Tipping, E., and Ohnstad, M., 1984, Colloid stability of iron oxide particles from a freshwater lake: Nature, v. 308, p. 266-268.
111. Traverse, A., 1978, Palynological analysis of DSDP Leg 42, Part 2 cores from the Black Sea, in Ross, D. A., Neprochnov, Y. P., and others, editors, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 42, Part 2: Washington, D.C., United States Government Printing Office, p. 993-1016.
112. Trendall, A. F., and Blockley, J. G., 1970, The iron formations of the Precambrian Hamersley Group, Western Australia: Geological Survey of Western Australia Bulletin 119, 366 p.
113. Ver, L. B., Mackenzie, F. T., and Lerman, A., 1994, Modeling pre-Industrial C-N-P-S biogeochemical cycling in the land-coastal margin system: Chemosphere, v. 29, p. 855-887.
114. Walker, J. C. G., 1984, Suboxic diagenesis in banded iron formations: Nature, v. 309, p. 340-342.
115. Walker, L. C., 1991, The Southern Forest: A chronicle: Austin, The University of Texas Press, 322 p.
116. Waite, T. D., and Morel, F. M. M., 1984, Photoreductive dissolution of colloidal iron oxides in natural waters: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 18, p. 860-868.
117. Warman, H. J., 1964, Alpha map transparencies mid-continental U.S.A.: Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 33 p.
118. 2 reduction vs. acetate formation-isotope evidence: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 50, p. 693-709.
119. Wollast, R., and Mackenzie, F. T., 1989, Global biogeochemical cycles and climate, in Berger, A., Schneider, S., and Duplessy, J., editors, Climate and Geo-Sciences: Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 453-473.
120. Wollast, R., Mackenzie, F. T., and Bricker, O. P., 1968, Experimental precipitation and genesis of sepiolite at earth-surface conditions: American Mineralogist, v. 53, p. 1645-1662.
121. 2O: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 56, p. 3031-3043.
122. Zubakov, V. A., and Borzenkova, I. I., 1990, Global Palaeoclimate of the Late Cenozoic: Amsterdam, Elsevier, 456 p.