Management of venous thromboembolism

New England Journal of Medicine

Volumn 335, Issue 24, 1996, Pages 1816-1828

  Ginsberg, Jeffrey Stephen ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HEPARIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; WARFARIN;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; BLEEDING; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DISEASE SEVERITY; ECHOGRAPHY; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; HUMAN; IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGRAPHY; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LUNG ANGIOGRAPHY; LUNG EMBOLISM; LUNG SCINTISCANNING; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; OSTEOPOROSIS; PARTIAL THROMBOPLASTIN TIME; PHLEBOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; SKIN NECROSIS; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; THROMBECTOMY; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; THROMBOPHILIA; VEIN THROMBOSIS; VENA CAVA FILTER;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; ANTICOAGULANTS; FEMALE; HEPARIN; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, CARDIOVASCULAR; PULMONARY EMBOLISM; RECURRENCE; THROMBOPHLEBITIS; WARFARIN;

EID: 0029819409     PISSN: 00284793     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199612123352407     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. The PIOPED Investigators. Value of the ventilation/perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism: results of the Prospective Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PIOPED). JAMA 1990;263:2753-9.
2. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Carter CJ, et al. Diagnostic efficacy of impedance plethysmography for clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 1985;102:21-8.
3. Huisman MV, Buller HR, ten Cate JW, Heijermam HSF, van der Laan J, van Maanen DJ. Management of clinically suspected acute venous thrombosis in outpatients with serial impedance plethysmography in a community hospital setting. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:511-3.
4. Huisman MV, Büller HR, ten Cate JW, Vreeken J. Serial impedance plethysmography for suspected deep venous thrombosis in outpatients. N Engl J Med 1986;314:823-8.
5. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Ginsberg JS, et al. A noninvasive strategy for the treatment of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:289-97.
6. Heijboer H, Büller HR, Lensing AWA, Turpie AGG, Colly LP, ten Cate JW. A comparison of real-time compression ultrasonography with impedance plethysmography for the diagnosis of deep-vein thrombosis in symptomatic outpatients. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1365-9.
7. Wells PS, Hirsh J, Anderson DR, et al. Accuracy of clinical assessment of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet 1995;345:1326-30. [Erratum, Lancet 1995;346:516.]
8. Barritt DW, Jordan SC. Anticoagulant drugs in the treatment of pulmonary embolism: a controlled trial. Lancet 1960;1:1309-12.
9. Wells PS, Hirsh J, Anderson DR, et al. Comparison of the accuracy of impedance plethysmography and compression ultrasonography in outpatients with clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis: a two centre paired-design prospective trial. Thromb Haemost 1995;74:1423-7.
10. Wells PS, Brill-Edwards P, Stevens P, et al. A novel and rapid whole-blood assay for D-dimer in patients with clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis. Circulation 1995;91:2184-7.
11. Hull RD, Carter CJ, Jay RM, et al. The diagnosis of acute, recurrent, deep-vein thrombosis: a diagnostic challenge. Circulation 1983;67:901-6.
12. Prandoni P, Cogo A, Bernardi E, et al. A simple ultrasound approach for detection of recurrent proximal-vein thrombosis. Circulation 1993;88: 1730-5.
13. Heijboer H, Brandjes DPM, Büller HR, Sturk A, ten Cate JW. Deficiencies of coagulation-inhibiting and fibrinolytic proteins in outpatients with deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1512-6.
14. Dahlback B. Inherited thrombophilia: resistance to activated protein C as a pathogenic factor of venous thromboembolism. Blood 1995;85:607-14.
15. den Heijer M, Blom HJ, Gerrits WBJ, et al. Is hyperhomocysteinaemia a risk factor for recurrent venous thrombosis? Lancet 1995;345:882-5.
16. Ginsberg JS, Wells PS, Brill-Edwards P, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and venous thromboembolism. Blood 1995;86:3685-91.
17. Demers C, Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J, Henderson P, Blajchman MA. Thrombosis in antithrombin-III-deficient persons: report of a large kindred and literature review. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:754-61.
18. Hirsh J, Prins MH, Samama M. Approach to the thrombophilic patient for hemostasis and thrombosis: basic principles and clinical practice. In: Colman RW, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, Salzman EW, eds. Hemostasis and thrombosis: basic principles and clinical practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1994:1543-61.
19. Huisman MV, Buller HR, ten Cate JW, et al. Unexpected high prevalence of silent pulmonary embolism in patients with deep venous thrombosis. Chest 1989;95:498-502.
20. Brandjes DPM, Heijboer H, Büller HR, de Rijk M, Jagt H, ten Gate JW. Acenocoumarol and heparin compared with acenocoumarol alone in the initial treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1992;327: 1485-9.
21. Hommes DW, Bura A, Mazzolai L, Buller HR, ten Cate JW. Subcutaneous heparin compared with continuous intravenous heparin administration in the initial treatment of deep vein thrombosis: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:279-84.
22. Levine MN, Raskob GE, Landefeld S, Hirsh J. Hemorrhagic complications of anticoagulant treatment. Chest 1995;108:Suppl:276s-290s.
23. Raschke RA, Reilly BM, Guidry JR, Fontana JR, Srinivas S. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a "standard care" nomogram: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:874-81.
24. Young E, Prins M, Levine MN, Hirsh J. Heparin binding to plasma proteins, an important mechanism for heparin resistance. Thromb Haemost 1992;67:639-43.
25. Chiu HM, Hirsh J, Yung WL, Regoeczi E, Gent M. Relationship between the anticoagulant and antithrombotic effects of heparin in experimental venous thrombosis. Blood 1977;49:171-84.
26. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Hirsh J, et al. Continuous intravenous heparin compared with intermittent subcutaneous heparin in the initial treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1986;315:1109-14.
27. Brill-Edwards P, Ginsberg JS, Johnston M, Hirsh J. Establishing a therapeutic range for heparin therapy. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:104-9.
28. Basu D, Gallus A, Hirsh J, Cade J. A prospective study of the value of monitoring heparin treatment with the activated partial thromboplastin time. N Engl J Med 1972;287:324-7.
29. Anand S, Ginsberg J, Kearon C, Hirsh J. The relationship between the activated partial thromboplastin time response and recurrence in patients with venous thrombosis treated with continuous intravenous heparin. J Gen Intern Med 1995;10:Suppl:38. abstract.
30. Cruickshank MK, Levine MN, Hirsh J, Roberts RS, Siguenza M. A standard heparin nomogram for the management of heparin therapy. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:333-7.
31. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Rosenbloom D, et al. Optimal therapeutic level of heparin therapy in patients with venous thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1589-95.
32. Lagerstedt CI, Olsson CG, Fagher BO, Oqvist BW, Albrechtsson U. Need for long-term anticoagulant treatment of symptomatic calf-vein thrombosis. Lancet 1985;2:515-8.
33. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, et al. A randomized trial comparing activated thromboplastin time with heparin assay in patients with acute venous thromboembolism requiring large daily doses of heparin. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:49-56.
34. Young E, Wells PS, Holloway S, Weitz JI, Hirsh J. Ex-vivo and invivo evidence that low molecular weight heparins exhibit less binding to plasma proteins than unfractionated heparin. Thromb Haemost 1994;71: 300-4.
35. Young E, Cosmi B, Weitz JI, Hirsh J. Comparison of the non-specific binding of unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin) to plasma proteins. Thromb Haemost 1993;70:625-30.
36. Bendetowicz AV, Beguin S, Caplain H, Hemker HC. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin) after subcutaneous injection, comparison with unfractionated heparin - a three way cross over study in human volunteers. Thromb Haemost 1994; 71:305-13.
37. Carter CJ, Kelton JG, Hirsh J, Cerskus AL, Santos AV, Gent M. The relationship between the hemorrhagic and antithrombotic properties of low molecular weight heparin in rabbits. Blood 1982;59:1239-45.
38. Leizorovicz A, Simonneau G, Decousus H, Boissel JP. Comparison of efficacy and safety of low molecular weight heparins and unfractionated heparin in initial treatment of deep venous thrombosis: a meta-analysis. BMJ 1994;309:299-304.
39. Lensing AWA, Prins MH, Davidson BL, Hirsh J. Treatment of deep venous thrombosis with low-molecular-weight heparins: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:601-7.
40. Siragusa S, Cosmi B, Piovella F, Hirsh J, Ginsberg JS. Low-molecular-weight heparins and unfractionated heparin in the treatment of patients with acute venous thromboembolism: results of a meta-analysis. Am J Med 1996;100:269-77.
41. Levine M, Gent M, Hirsh J, et al. A comparison of low molecular-weight heparin administered primarily at home with unfractionated heparin administered in the hospital for proximal deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1996;334:677-81.
42. Koopman MMW, Prandoni P, Piovella F, et al. Treatment of venous thrombosis with intravenous unfractionated heparin administered in the hospital as compared with subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin administered at home. N Engl J Med 1996;334:682-7.
43. Hirsh J, Ginsberg JS, Marder VJ. Anticoagulant therapy with coumarin agents. In: Colman RW, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, Salzman EW, eds. Hemostasis and thrombosis: basic principles and clinical practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1994:1567-83.
44. Hirsh J. Substandard monitoring of warfarin in North America: time for change. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:257-8.
45. Hull R, Hirsh J, Jay R, et al. Different intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1982; 307:1676-81.
46. Wessler S, Gitel SN. Warfarin: from bedside to bench. N Engl J Med 1984;311:645-52.
47. Okajima K, Koga S, Kaji M, et al. Effect of protein C and activated protein C on coagulation and fibrinolysis in normal human subjects. Thromb Haemost 1990;63:48-53.
48. Hellemans J, Vorlat M, Verstraete M. Survival time of prothrombin and factors VII, IX and X after completely synthesis blocking doses of coumarin derivatives. Br J Haematol 1963;9:506-12.
49. Roberts HR, Lechler E, Webster WP, Penick GD. Survival of transfused factor X in patients with Stuart disease. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 1965;13:305-13.
50. Zivelin A, Rao LVM, Rapaport SI. Mechanism of the anticoagulant effect of warfarin as evaluated in rabbits by selective depression of individual procoagulant vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. J Clin Invest 1993;92: 2131-40.
51. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Rosenbloom D, et al. Heparin for 5 days as compared with 10 days in the initial treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1990;322:1260-4.
52. Gallus AS, Jackaman J, Tillett J, Mills W, Wycherley A. Safety and efficacy of warfarin started early after submassive venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Lancet 1986;2:1293-6.
53. Wells PS, Holbrook AM, Crowther NR, Hirsh J. Interactions of warfarin with drugs and food. Ann Intern Med 1994;121:676-83.
54. Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society. Optimum duration of anticoagulation for deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Lancet 1992;340:873-6.
55. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, et al. Optimal duration of oral anticoagulant therapy: a randomized trial comparing four weeks with three months of warfarin in patients with proximal deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 1995;74:606-11.
56. Schulman S, Rhedin A-S, Lindmarker P, et al. A comparison of six weeks with six months of oral anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1661-5.
57. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Bu̇ller HR, et al. Deep-vein thrombosis and the incidence of subsequent symptomatic cancer. N Engl J Med 1992;327: 1128-33.
58. Landefeld CS, Goldman L. Major bleeding in outpatients treated with warfarin: incidence and prediction by factors known at the start of outpatient therapy. Am J Med 1989;87:144-52.
59. Landefeld CS, Rosenblatt MW, Goldman L. Bleeding in outpatients treated with warfarin: relation to the prothrombin time and important remediable lesions. Am J Med 1989;87:153-9.
60. Glover JJ, Morrill GB. Conservative treatment of overanticoagulated patients. Chest 1995;108:987-90.
61. Shetty HGM, Backhouse G, Bentley DP, Routlcdge PA. Effective reversal of warfarin-induced excessive anticoagulation with low dose vitamin KI. Thromb Haemost 1992;67:13-5.
62. Wolzr M, Weltermann A, Nieszpaur-Los M, et al. Studies on the neutralizing effects of protamine on unfractionated and low molecular weight heparin (Fragmin) at the site of activation of the coagulation system in man. Thromb Haemost 1995;73:439-43.
63. Warkentin TE, Levine MN, Hirsh J, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractïonated heparin. N Engl J Med 1995;332:1330-5.
64. King DJ, Kelton JG. Heparin associated thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1984;100:535-40.
65. Demers C, Ginsberg JS, Brill-Edwards P, et al. Rapid anticoagulation using ancrod for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 1991;78: 2194-7.
66. Magnani HN. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): an overview of 230 patients treated with Orgaran (Org 10172). Thromb Haemost 1993;70:554-61. [Erratum, Thromb Haemost 1993;70:1072.]
67. de Valk HW, Banga JD, Wester JWJ, et al. Comparing subcutaneous danaparoid with intravenous unfractionated heparin for the treatment of venous thromboembolism: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:1-9.
68. Greinacher A, Völpel H, Poetzsch B. Recombinant hirudin (HBW 023) in the treatment of patients with heparin-associated thrombocytopenia (HAT) - a prospective study. Thromb Haemost 1995;73:1456. abstract.
69. Vitoux JF, Mathieu JF, Roncato M, Fiessinger JN, Aiach M. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia treatment with low molecular weight heparin. Thromb Haemost 1986;55:37-9.
70. Kakkar VV, Flanc C, Howe CT, O'Shea M, Flute PT. Treatment of deep vein thrombosis: a trial of heparin, streptokinase, and Arvin. BMJ 1969;1:806-10.
71. Moia M, Schiele F, Walker M, et al. Treatment of acute deep vein thrombosis (DVT) by subcutaneous r-hirudin (HBW 023): a multicentre study. Thromb Haemost 1995;73:1456. abstract.
72. Dahlman TC. Osteoporotic fractures and the recurrence of thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium in 184 women undergoing thromboprophylaxis with heparin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168: 1265-70.
73. Ginsberg JS, Kowalchuk G, Hirsh J, et al. Heparin effect on bone density. Thromb Haemost 1990;64:286-9.
74. Barbour LA, Kick SD, Steiner JF, et al. A prospective study of heparin-induced osteoporosis in pregnancy using bone densitometry. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170:862-9.
75. Monreal M, Lafoz E, Olive A, del Rio L, Vedia C. Comparison of subcutaneous unfractionated heparin with a low molecular weight heparin (Fragmin) in patients with venous thromboembolism and contraindications to coumarin. Thromb Haemost 1994;71:7-11.
76. Broekmans AW, Bertina RM, Loeliger EA, Hofmann V, Klingemann HG. Protein C and the development of skin necrosis during anticoagulant therapy. Thromb Haemost 1983;49:2-51.
77. Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GRV. The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995;332:993-7.
78. Prins MH, Lensing AWA, Hirsh J. Idiopathic deep venous thrombosis: is a search for malignant disease justified? Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1310-2.
79. Schulman S, Granqvist S, Juhlin-Dannfelt A, Lockner D. Long-term sequelae of calf vein thrombosis treated with heparin or low-dose streptokinase. Acta Med Scand 1986;219:349-57.
80. Kakkar VV, Lawrence D. Hemodynamic and clinical assessment after therapy for acute deep vein thrombosis: a prospective study. Am J Surg 1985;150:54-63.
81. Killewich LA, Martin R, Cramer M, Beach KW, Strandness DE Jr. An objective assessment of the physiologic changes in the postthrombotic syndrome. Arch Surg 1985;120:424-6.
82. Jacobs P. Pathogenesis of the postphlebitic syndrome. Annu Rev Med 1983;34:91-105.
83. Strandness DE Jr, Langlois Y, Cramer M, Randlett A, Thiele BL. Long-term sequelae of acute venous thrombosis. JAMA 1983;250:1289-92.
84. Turpie AGG, Levine MN, Hirsh J, et al. Tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) vs heparin in deep vein thrombosis: results of a randomized trial. Chest 1990;97:Suppl:172S-175S.
85. Markel A, Manzo RA, Strandness DE Jr. The potential role of thrombolytic therapy in venous thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1265-7.
86. Goldhaber SZ, Buring JE, Lipnick RJ, Hennekens CH. Pooled analyses of randomized trials of streptokinase and heparin in phlebographically documented acute deep venous thrombosis. Am J Med 1984;76: 393-7.
87. O'Meara JJ III, McNutt RA, Evans AT, Moore SW, Downs SM. A decision analysis of streptokinase plus heparin as compared with heparin alone for deep vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1864-9.
88. Goldhaber SZ, Meyerovitz MF, Green D, et al. Randomized controlled trial of tissue plasminogen activator in proximal deep venous thrombosis. Am J Med 1990;88:235-40.
89. Gandhi BD, Palmar JR, Lewis B, Schraibman IG. Clinical comparison of elastic supports for venous diseases of the lower limb. Postgrad Med J 1984;60:349-52.
90. Noyes LD, Rice JC, Kerstein MD. Hemodynamic assessment of high-compression hosiery in chronic venous disease. Surgery 1987;102:813-5.
91. O'Donnell TF Jr, Rosenthal DA, Callow AD, Ledig BL. Effect of elastic compression on venous hemodynamics in postphlebitic limbs. JAMA 1979;242:2766-8.
92. Pierson S, Pierson D, Swallow RT, Johnson G Jr. Efficacy of graded elastic compression in the lower leg. JAMA 1983;249:242-3.
93. Jones NA, Webb PJ, Rees RI, Kakkar VV. A physiological study of elastic compression stockings in venous disorders of the leg. Br J Surg 1980;67:569-72.
94. Ginsberg JS, Brill-Edwards P, Kowalchuk G, Hirsh J. Intermittent compression units for the postphlebitic syndrome: a pilot study. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:1651-2.
95. Flessa HC, Kapstrom AB, Glueck HI, Will JJ. Placental transport of heparin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1965;93:570-3.
96. Melissari E, Parker CJ, Wilson NV, et al. Use of low molecular weight heparin in pregnancy. Thromb Haemost 1992;68:652-6.
97. Hall JAG, Pauli RM, Wilson KM. Maternal and fetal sequelae of anticoagulation during pregnancy. Am J Med 1980;68:122-40.
98. Orme ML, Lewis PJ, de Swiet M, et al. May mothers given warfarin breast-feed their infants? BMJ 1977;1:1564-5.
99. Becker DM, Philbrick JT, Selby JB. Inferior vena cava filters: indications, safety, effectiveness. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1985-94.
100. Jamieson SW, Auger WR, Fedullo PF, et al. Experience and results with 150 pulmonary thromboendarterectomy operations over a 29-month period. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993;106:116-26.
101. Sors H, Pacouret G, Azarian R, Meyer G, Charbonnier B, Simonneau G. Hemodynamic effects of bolus vs 2-h infusion of alteplase in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled multicenter trial. Chest 1994;106:712-7.
102. Goldhaber SZ, Vaughan DE, Markis JE, et al. Acute pulmonary embolism treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Lancet 1986;2:886-9.
103. Goldhaber SZ, Haire WD, Feldstein ML, et al. Alteplase versus heparin in acute pulmonary embolism: randomised trial assessing right-ventricular function and pulmonary perfusion. Lancet 1993;341:507-11.
104. Goldhaber SZ, Agnelli G, Levine MN, Bolus Alteplase Pulmonary Embolism Group. Reduced dose bolus alteplase vs conventional alteplase infusion for pulmonary embolism thrombolysis: an international multicenter randomized trial. Chest 1994;106:718-24.
105. Parent F, Bridey F, Dreyfus M, et al. Treatment of severe venous thrombo-embolism with intravenous hirudin (HBW 023): an open pilot study. Thromb Haemost 1993;70:386-8.
106. Ginsberg JS, Nurmohamed MT, Gent M, et al. Effects on thrombin generation of single injections of Hirulog in patients with calf vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 1994;72:523-5.