New insights into the mammalian circadian clock

Sleep

Volumn 19, Issue 8, 1996, Pages 641-667

  Miller, Joseph D ^a,e   Morin, Lawrence P ^b   Schwartz, William J ^c   Moore, Robert Y ^d  

^a TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

^e TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY HEALTH SCIENCES CENTER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

5HT; Circadian rhythm; Enkephalin; Hypothalamus; Intergeniculate leaflet; Neuropeptide Y; Raphe; Retinohypothalamic tract; Substance P; Suprachiasmatic nucleus; Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide

Indexed keywords

ENKEPHALIN; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; SUBSTANCE P; VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL POLYPEPTIDE;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BEHAVIOR; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; CONTROLLED STUDY; DORSAL RAPHE NUCLEUS; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HYPOTHALAMUS; NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS;

EID: 0029809575     PISSN: 01618105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/sleep/19.8.641     Document Type: Review

References (230)

1. Klein DC, Moore RY, Reppert SM, eds. Suprachiasmatic nucleus: the mind's clock. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
2. Meijer JH, Rietveld WJ. Neurophysiology of the suprachiasmatic circadian pacemaker in rodents. Physiol Rev 1989;69: 671-707.
3. Morin LP. The circadian visual system. Brain Res Rev 1994;67: 102-27.
4. Watts AG, Swanson LW. Efferent projections of the suprachiasmatic nucleus: II. Studies using retrograde transport of fluorescent dyes and simultaneous peptide immunohistochemistry in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1987;258:230-52.
5. Watts AG, Swanson LW, Sanchez-Watts G. Efferent projections of the suprachiasmatic nucleus: I. Studies using anterograde transport of Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1987;258:204-29.
6. Kalsbeek A, Teclemariam-Mesbah R, Pevet P. Efferent projections of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus). J Comp Neurol 1993;332:293-314.
7. Morin LP, Goodless-Sanchez N, Smale L, et al. Projections of the suprachiasmatic nuclei, subparaventricular zone and retrochiasmatic area in the golden hamster. Neurosci 1994;61:391-410.
8. Silver R, Lehman MN, Gibson M, et al. Dispersed cell suspensions of fetal SCN restore circadian rhythmicity in SCN-lesioned adult hamsters. Brain Res 1990;525:45-58.
9. Hakim H, DeBernardo AP, Silver R. Circadian locomotor rhythms, but not photoperiodic responses, survive surgical isolation of the SCN in hamsters. J Biol Rhythms 1991;6:97-113.
10. Morin LP, Blanchard JH, Moore RY. Intergeniculate leaflet and suprachiasmatic nucleus organization and connections in the hamster. Vis Neurosci 1992;8:219-30.
11. Card JP, Moore RY. The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the golden hamster: immunohistochemical analysis of cell and fiber distribution. Neuroscience 1984;13:390-6.
12. Miceli MO, Van der Kooy D, Post CA, et al. Differential distributions of cholecystokinin in hamster and rat forebrain. Brain Res 1987;402:318-30.
13. Johnson RF, Morin LP, Moore RY. Retinohypothalamic projections in the hamster and rat demonstrated using cholera toxin. Brain Res 1988;462:301-12.
14. Miller JD. On the nature of the circadian clock in mammals. Am J Physiol 1993;264:R821-32.
15. van den Pol AN, Dudek FE. Cellular communication in the circadian clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Neuroscience 1993;56:793-811.
16. van den Pol AN, Tsujimoto, KL. Neurotransmitters of the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus: immunocytochemical analysis of 25 neuronal antigens. Neuroscience 1985;252:507-21.
17. Okamura H, Berod A, Julien JF, et al. Demonstration of GABAergic cell bodies in the suprachiasmatic nucleus: in situ hybridization of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) mRNA and immunocytochemistry of GAD and GABA. Neurosci Lett 1989;102:131-6.
18. Moore RY, Speh JC. GABA is the principal transmitter of the circadian system. Neurosci Lett 1993;150:112-6.
19. Jacobowitz DM, Winsky L. Immunocytochemical localization of calretinin in the forebrain of the rat. J Comp Neurol 1991;304:198-218.
20. Besmer HR, Khan R, LeSauter J, et al. A distinct subnucleus of calbindin-LI immunoreactive cells in the hamster suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Soc Neurosci Abstr 1993;1613.
21. LeSauter J, Silver R. Localization of pacemaker cells in the hamster SCN: 1) studies using FOS, ablation and mutants. Soc Neurosci Abstr 1995;178.
22. Bosler O, Beaudet A. VIP neurons as prime synaptic targets for serotonin afferents in rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: a combined radioautographic and immunocytochemcial study. J Neurocytol 1985;14:749-63.
23. Guy J, Bosler O, Dusticier G, et al. Morphological correlates of serotonin-neuropeptide Y interactions in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: combined radioautographic and immunocytochemical data. Cell Tissue Res 1987;250:657-62.
24. Tanaka M, Ichitani Y, Okamura H, et al. The direct retinal projection to VIP neuronal elements in the rat SCN. Brain Res Bull 1993;31:637-40.
25. Bina KG, Rusak B, Semba K. Localization of cholinergic neurons in the forebrain and brainstem that project to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus in rat. J Comp Neurol 1993;335:295-307.
26. Schwartz JC, Arrang JM, Garbarg M, et al. Histaminergic transmission in the mammalian brain. Physiol Rev 1991;71:1-51.
27. Lehman MN, Silver R, Gladstone WR, et al. Circadian rhythmicity restored by neural transplant. Immunocytochemical characterization of the graft and its integration with the host brain. J Neurosci 1987;7:1626-38.
28. Ralph MR, Foster RG, Davis FC, et al. Transplanted suprachiasmatic nucleus determines circadian period. Science 1990;247:975-8.
29. Morin LP. Neural control of circadian rhythms as revealed through the use of benzodiazepines. In: Klein DC, Moore RY, Reppert SM, eds. Suprachiasmatic nucleus: the mind's clock. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991:324-38.
30. Rusak B, Groos G. Suprachiasmatic stimulation phase shifts rodent circadian rhythms. Science 1982;215:1407-9.
31. Piggins HD, Antle MC, Rusak B. Neuropeptides phase shift the mammalian circadian pacemaker. J Neurosci 1995;15: 5612-22.
32. Albers HE, Liou SY, Stopa EG, et al. Interaction of colocalized neuropeptides: Functional significance in the circadian timing system. J Neurosci 1991;11:846-51.
33. Welsh DK, Logothetis DE, Meister M, et al. Individual neurons dissociated from rat suprachiasmatic nucleus express independently phase circadian firing rhythms. Neuron 1995;14:697-706.
34. Moore RY, Klein DC. Visual pathways and the central neural control of a circadian rhythm in pineal serotonin N-acetyltransferase activity. Brain Res 1974;71:17-33.
35. Klein DC, Moore RY. Pineal N-acetyltransferase and hydroxyindole-o-methyltranferase: Control by the retinohypothalamic tract and the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Brain Res 1979;174: 245-62.
36. Moore RY, Lenn NJ. A retinohypothalamic projection in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1972;146:1-14.
37. Hendrickson AE, Wagoner N, Cowan WN. An autoradiographic and electron microscopic study of retino-hypothalamic connections. Z Zellforsch 1972;135:1-26.
38. Johnson RF, Moore RY, Morin LP. Loss of entrainment and anatomical plasticity after lesions of the hamster retinohypothalamic tract. Brain Res 1988;460:297-313.
39. Foster RG, Provencio I, Hudson D, et al. Circadian photoreception in the retinally degenerate mouse (rd/rd). J Comp Physiol [A] 1991;169:39-50.
40. Foster RG, Argamaso S, Coleman S, et al. I. Photoreceptors regulating circadian behavior: a mouse model. J Biol Rhythms 1993;8:517-23.
41. Moore RY, Speh JC, Card JP. The retinohypothalamic tract originates from a distinct subset of retinal ganglion cells. J Comp Neurol 1995;352:351-66.
42. Perry VH. The ganglion cell layer of the retina of the rat: a Golgi study. Proc K Soc Lond (Biol) 1979;204:363-75.
43. Murakami DM, Miller JD, Fuller CA. The retinohypothalamic tract in the cat: retinal ganglion cell morphology and pattern of projection. Brain Res 1989;482:283-96.
44. Card JP, Whealy ME, Robbins AK, et al. Two "-herpesvirus strains are transported differentially in the rodent visual system. Neuron 1991;6:957-69.
45. Pickard GE. Bifurcating axons of retinal ganglion cells terminate in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus and the intergeniculate leaflet of the thalamus. Neurosci Lett 1985;55: 211-7.
46. Ritter S, Dinh TT. Age-related changes in capsaicin-induced degeneration in rat brain. J Comp Neurol 1992;318:103-16.
47. Sefton AJ, Dreher B. Visual system. In: Paxinos G, ed. The rat nervous system, 2nd edition. New York: Academic Press, 1995:833-98.
48. Levine JD, Weiss ML, Rosenwasser AM, et al. Retinohypothalamic tract in the female albino rat: a study using horseradish peroxidase conjugated to cholera toxin. J Comp Neurol 1991;306:344-60.
49. Speh JC, Moore RY. Retinohypothalamic tract development in the hamster and rat. Dev Brain Res 1993;76:171-81.
50. Moore RY, Card JP. Noradrenaline-containing neuron systems. In: Bjorklund A, Hokfelt T, eds. Handbook of chemical neuroanatomy: classical transmitters in the CNS, part I. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1984;2:123-56.
51. Ghldner FH. Synapses of optic nerve afferents in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. I. Identification, qualitative description, development and distribution. Cell Tissue Res 1978;194:17-35.
52. Ghldner FH. Synapses of optic nerve afferents in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. II. Structural variability as revealed by morphometric analysis. Cell Tissue Res 1978;194:37-54.
53. Ghldner FH, Wolff JR. Retinal afferents form gray type I and type II synapses in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Exp Brain Res 1987;32:83-9.
54. Groos GA, Mason R. The visual properties of rat and cat suprachiasmatic neurones. J Comp Physiol [A] 1980;135:349-56.
55. Meijer JH, Groos G, Rusak B. Luminance coding in a circadian pacemaker: the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the rat and hamster. Brain Res 1986;382:109-18.
56. Meijer JH, Rusak B, Gänshirt G. The relation between light-induced discharge in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and phase shifts of hamster circadian rhythms. Brain Res 1992;598:257-63.
57. Inouye SI. Light responsiveness of the suprachiasmatic nucleus island with the retinohypothalamic tract spared. Brain Res 1984;294:263-8.
58. Takahashi JS, DeCoursey PJ, Bauman L, et al. Spectral sensitivity of a novel photoreceptive system mediating entrainment of mammalian circadian rhythms. Nature 1984;308: 186-8.
59. Moffett JR, Williamson L, Palkovits M, et al. N-Acetylaspartylglutamate: a transmitter candidate for the retinohypothalamic tract. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:8065-9.
60. DeVries MJ, Cardozo BN, van der Waut J, et al. Glutamate immunoreactivity in terminals of the retinohypothalamic tract of the brown Norwegian rat. Brain Res 1993;612:231-7.
61. Castel M, Belenkey S, Cohen S, et al. Glutamate-like immunoreactivity in retinal terminals of the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus. Eur J Neurosci 1993;5:368-81.
62. van den Pol AN. Glutamate and aspartate immunoreactivity in hypothalamic presynaptic axons. J Neurosci 1991;11:2087-101.
63. Liou SY, Shibata S, Iwasaki K, et al. Optic nerve stimulation-induced release of 3H-glutamate and 3H-aspartate but not 3H-GABA from the suprachiasmatic nucleus in slices of rat hypothalamus. Brain Res Bull 1986;16:527-31.
64. Shirakawa T, Moore RY. Glutamate shifts the phase of the circadian neuronal timing rhythm in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus in vitro. Neurosci Lett 1994;178:47-50.
65. Colwell CS, Ralph MR, Menaker M. Do NMDA receptors mediate the effects of light on circadian behavior? Brain Res 1990;523:117-20.
66. Colwell CS, Foster RG, Menaker M. NMDA receptor antagonists block the effects of light on circadian behavior in the mouse. Brain Res 1991;554:105-10.
67. Vindlacheruvu RR, Ebling FJP, Maywood ES, et al. Blockade of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the suprachiasmatic nucleus prevents cellular and behavioral responses of the circadian system to light. Eur J Neurosci 1992;4:673-9.
68. Shirakawa T, Moore RY. Responses of rat suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons to substance P and glutamate in vitro. Brain Res 1994;642:213-20.
69. Ding JM, Chen D, Weber ET, et al. Resetting the biological clock: mediation of nocturnal circadian shifts by glutamate and NO. Science 1994;266:1713-7.
70. Takatsuji K, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ, Tohyama M. Substance P-immunoreactive innervation from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the rat. Brain Res 1991;568:223-9.
71. Mikkelsen JD, Larsen PJ. Substance P in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat: an immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization study. Histochemistry 1993;100:3-16.
72. Shibata S, Tsuneyoshi A, Hamada T, et al. Effect of substance P on circadian rhythms of firing activity and the 2-deoxyglucose uptake in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus in vitro. Brain Res 1992;597:257-63.
73. Eskin A. Identification and physiology of circadian pacemakers. Fed Proc 1979;38:2570-2.
74. Rea MA. Light increases Fos-related protein immunoreactivity in the rat suprachiasmatic nuclei. Brain Res Bull 1989;23:577-81.
75. Aronin N, Sagar SM, Sharp FR, et al. Light regulates expression of a Fos-related protein in rat suprachiasmatic nuclei. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:5959-62.
76. Earnest DJ, Iadarola M, Yeh HH, et al. Photic regulation of c-fos expression in neural components governing the entrainment of circadian rhythms. Exp Neurol 1990;109:353-61.
77. Rusak B, Robertson HA, Wisden W, et al. Light pulses that shift rhythms induce gene expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Science 1990;248:1237-40.
78. Kornhauser JM, Nelson DE, Mayo KE, et al. Photic and circadian regulation of c-fos gene expression in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus. Neuron 1990;5:127-34.
79. Takeuchi J, Shannon W, Aronin N, et al. Compositional changes of AP-1 DNA-binding proteins are regulated by light in a mammalian circadian clock. Neuron 1993;11:825-36.
80. Bennett MR, Schwartz WJ. Are glia among the cells that express immunoreactive c-Fos in the suprachiasmatic nucleus? NeuroReport 1994;5:1737-40.
81. Kornhauser JM, Mayo KE, Takahashi JS. Immediate-early gene expression in a mammalian circadian pacemaker: the suprachiasmatic nucleus. In: Young MW, ed. Molecular genetics of biological rhythms. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993:271-307.
82. Schwartz WJ, Aronin N, Takeuchi J, et al. Towards a molecular biology of the suprachiasmatic nucleus: photic and temporal regulation of c-fos gene expression. Semin Neurosci 1995;7: 53-60.
83. Earnest DJ, Olschowka JA. Circadian regulation of c-fos expression in the suprachiasmatic pacemaker by light. J Biol Rhythms 1993;8:S65-71.
84. Ginty DD, Kornhauser JM, Thompson MA, et al. Regulation of CREB phosphorylation in the suprachiasmatic nucleus by light and a circadian clock. Science 1993;260:238-41.
85. Rea MA, Buckley B, Lutton LM. Local administration of EAA antagonists blocks light-induced phase shifts and c-fos expression in hamster SCN. Am J Physiol 1993;265:R1191-8.
86. Weber ET, Gannon RL, Rea MA. cGMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor blocks light-induced phase advances of circadian rhythms in vivo. Neurosci Lett 1995;197:227-30.
87. Weber ET, Gannon RL, Michel AM, et al. Nitric oxide synthase inhibitor blocks light-induced phase shifts of the circadian activity rhythm, but not c-fos expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the Syrian hamster. Brain Res 1995;692: 137-42.
88. Wollnik F, Brysch W, Uhlmann E, et al. Block of c-Fos and JunB expression by antisense oligonucleotides inhibits light-induced phase shifts of the mammalian circadian clock. Eur J Neurosci 1995;7:388-93.
89. Honrado GI, Johnson RS, Spiegelman BM, et al. The circadian system of gene-targeted mice with a null mutation at the c-fos locus. Abstr Soc Res Biol Rhythms 1994;59.
90. Meijer JH, Rusak B, Gänshirt G. The relation between light-induced discharge in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and phase shifts of hamster circadian rhythms. Brain Res 1992;598:257-63.
91. Zhang DX, Rusak B. Photic sensitivity of geniculate neurons that project to the suprachiasmatic nuclei or the contralateral geniculate. Brain Res 1989;504:161-4.
92. Harrington ME, Rusak B. Photic responses of geniculo-hypothalamic tract neurons in the Syrian hamster. Vis Neurosci 1989;2:367-75.
93. Harrington ME, Rusak B. Luminance coding properties of intergeniculate leaflet neurons in the golden hamster and the effects of chronic clorgyline. Brain Res 1991;554:95-104.
94. Johnson RF, Moore RY, Morin LP. Lateral geniculate lesions alter activity rhythms in the hamster. Brain Res Bull 1989;22: 411-22.
95. Pickard GE, Ralph MR, Menaker M. The intergeniculate leaflet partially mediates effects of light on circadian rhythms. J Biol Rhythms 1987;2:35-56.
96. Harrington ME, Rusak B. Lesions of the thalamic intergeniculate leaflet alter hamster circadian rhythms. J Biol Rhythms 1986;1:309-25.
97. Rusak B. Involvement of the primary optic tracts in the mediation of light effects on hamster circadian rhythms. J Comp Physiol 1977;118:165-72.
98. Rusak B, Boulos Z. Pathways for photic entrainment of mammalian circadian rhythms. Photochem Photobiol 1981;34:267-73.
99. Morin LP, Blanchard J. Organization of the hamster intergeniculate leaflet: NPY and ENK projections to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, intergeniculate leaflet and posterior limitans nucleus. Vis Neurosci 1995;12:57-67.
100. Card JP, Moore RY. Organization of lateral geniculate-hypothalamic connections in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1989;284:135-47.
101. Albers HE, Ferris CF. Neuropeptide Y: role in light-dark entrainment of hamster circadian rhythms. Neurosci Lett 1984;50:163-8.
102. Albers HE, Ferris CF, Leeman SE, et al. Avian pancreatic polypeptide phase shifts hamster circadian rhythms when microinjected into the suprachiasmatic region. Science 1984;223: 833-5.
103. Rusak B, Meijer JH, Harrington ME. Hamster circadian rhythms are phase-shifted by electrical stimulation of the geniculo-hypothalamic tract. Brain Res 1989;493:283-91.
104. Turek FW, Losee-Olson S. A benzodiazepine used in the treatment of insomnia phase-shifts the mammalian circadian clock. Nature 1986;321:167-8.
105. Johnson RF, Smale L, Moore RY, et al. Lateral geniculate lesions block circadian phase shift responses to a benzodiazepine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:5301-4.
106. Biello SM, Harrington ME, Mason R. Geniculo-hypothalamic tract lesions block chlordiazepoxide-induced phase advances in Syrian hamsters. Brain Res 1991;552:47-52.
107. Meyer EL, Harrington ME, Rahamani T. A phase-response curve to the benzodiazepine chlordiazepoxide and the effect of geniculo-hypothalamic tract ablation. Physiol Behav 1993;53: 237-43.
108. Biello SM, Mrosovsky N. Circadian phase-shifts induced by chlordiazepoxide without increased locomotor activity. Brain Res 1993;622:58-62.
109. Janik D, Mrosovsky N. Intergeniculate leaflet lesions and behaviorally-induced shifts of circadian rhythms. Brain Res 1994;651:174-82.
110. Wickland C, Turek FW. Lesions of the thalamic intergeniculate leaflet block activity-induced phase shifts in the circadian activity rhythm of the golden hamster. Brain Res 1994;660:293-300.
111. Biello SM, Janik D, Mrosovsky N. Neuropeptide Y and behaviorally induced phase shifts. Neuroscience 1994;62:273-9.
112. Michels KM, Morin LP, Moore RY. GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor localization in the circadian timing system. Brain Res 1990;531:16-24.
113. Eichler VB, Moore RY. The primary and accessory optic systems in the golden hamster, Mesocricetus auratus. Acta Anat 1974;89:359-71.
114. Taylor AM, Jeffery G, Lieberman AR. Subcortical afferent and efferent connections of the superior colliculus in the rat and comparisons between albino and pigmented strains. Exp Brain Res 1986;62:131-42.
115. Morin LP. Serotonergic reinnervation of the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus and intergeniculate leaflet without functional circadian rhythm recovery. Brain Res 1992;599:98-104.
116. Smale L, Michels KM, Moore RY, et al. Destruction of the hamster serotonergic system by 5,7-DHT: effects on circadian rhythm phase, entrainment and response to triazolam. Brain Res 1990;515:9-19.
117. Morin LP, Blanchard JH. Depletion of brain serotonin by 5,7-DHT modifies hamster circadian rhythm response to light. Brain Res 1991;566:173-85.
118. Meyer-Bernstein EL, Morin LP. Differential serotonergic innervation of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the intergeniculate leaflet and its role in circadian rhythm modulation. J Neurosci 1996;16:2097-111.
119. Penev PD, Turek FW, Zee PC. Monoamine depletion alters the entrainment and the response to light of the circadian activity rhythm in hamsters. Brain Res 1993;612:156-64.
120. Cutrera RA, Kalsbeek A, Pevet P. Specific destruction of the serotonergic afferents to the suprachiasmatic nuclei prevents triazolam-induced phase advances of hamster activity rhythms. Behav Brain Res 1994;62:21-8.
121. Botchkina GI, Morin LP. Development of the hamster serotoninergic system: cell groups and diencephalic projections. J Comp Neurol 1993;338:405-31.
122. Meyer DC, Quay WB. Hypothalamic and suprachiasmatic uptake of serotonin in vitro: twenty four-hour changes in male and proestrus female rats. Endocrinology 1976;98:1160-5.
123. Faradji H, Jouvet M, Cespuglio R. Voltammetric measurements of 5-hydroxyindole compounds in the suprachiasmatic nuclei: circadian fluctuations. Brain Res 1983;279:111-9.
124. Glass JD, Randolph WW, Ferreira SA, et al. Diurnal variation in 5-hydroxyindole-acetic acid output in the suprachiasmatic region of the Siberian hamster assessed by in vivo microdialysis: evidence for nocturnal activation of serotonin release. Neuroendocrinol 1992;56:582-90.
125. Mason R. Circadian variation in sensitivity of suprachiasmatic and lateral geniculate neurons to 5-hydroxytryptamine in the rat. J Physiol 1986;377:1-13.
126. Kordon C, Hery M, Szafarczyk A, et al. Serotonin and the regulation of pituitary hormone secretion and of neuroendocrine rhythms. J Physiol 1981;77:489-96.
127. Cagampang FRA, Inouye SIT. Diurnal and circadian changes of serotonin in the suprachiasmatic nuclei: regulation by light and an endogenous pacemaker. Brain Res 1994;639:175-9.
128. McGinty DJ, Harper RM. Dorsal raphe neurons. Depression of firing during sleep in cats. Brain Res 1976;101:569-75.
129. Ferraro JS, Steger RW. Diurnal variations in brain serotonin are driven by the photic cycle and are not circadian in nature. Brain Res 1990;512:121-4.
130. Wirz-Justice A, Campbell IC. Antidepressant drugs can slow or dissociate circadian rhythms. Experientia 1982;38:1301-9.
131. Hiroshige T, Honma K. Internal and external synchronization of endogenous rhythms in the rat and involvement of brain biogenic amines. In: Suda M, Hayaishi O, Nakagawa H, eds. Biological rhythms and their control mechanisms. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1979:232-45.
132. Honma K, Watanabe K, Hiroshige T. Effects of parachlorophenylalanine and 5,6-dihydroxytryptamine on the free-running rhythms of locomotor activity and plasma corticosterone in the rat exposed to continuous light. Brain Res 1979;169: 531-44.
133. Prosser RA, Miller JD, Heller HC. A serotonin agonist phase shifts the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in vitro. Brain Res 1990;534:336-9.
134. 2+. Brain Res 1992;573:336-40.
135. Edgar DM, Miller JD, Prosser RA, et al. Serotonin and the mammalian circadian system. II. Phase shifting rat behavioral rhythms with serotonergic agonists. J Biol Rhythms 1993;8:17-31.
136. Prosser RA, Edgar DM, Dean R, et al. Serotonin and the mammalian circadian system. I. In vitro phase shifting by serotonergic agonists and antagonists. J Biol Rhythms 1993;8:1-16.
137. Medanic M, Gillette MU. Serotonin regulates the phase of the rat suprachiasmatic circadian pacemaker in vitro only during the subjective day. J Physiol 1992;450:629-42.
138. 1A receptor agonist, on the circadian rhythm of firing rate in the rat suprachiasmatic nuclei in vitro. Brain Res 1992;582:353-6.
139. 1A receptor agonists on the circadian rhythm of wheel-running in hamsters. Eur J Pharmacol 1992;214:79-84.
140. Prosser RA, Gillette MU. The mammalian circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei is reset in vitro by cAMP. J Neurosci 1989;9:1073-81.
141. + channel opening. Brain Res 1994;644:67-73.
142. 7) implicated in the regulation of mammalian circadian rhythms. Neuron 1993;11:449-58.
143. Jacobs BL. Serotonin and behavior: Emphasis on motor control. J Clin Psychiatry 1991;52:17-23.
144. Shiori T, Takahashi K, Yamada N, et al. Motor activity correlates negatively with free-running period, while positively with serotonin contents in SCN in free-running rats. Physiol Behav 1991;49:779-86.
145. Edgar DM, Dement WC. Regularly scheduled voluntary exercise synchronizes the mouse circadian clock. Am J Physiol 1991;261:R928-33.
146. Boulos Z, Rusak B. Circadian phase response curve for dark pulses in the hamster. J Comp Physiol [A] 1982;146:411-7.
147. Ueda S, Matsumoto Y, Nisimura A, et al. Role of neuropeptide Y projection on the development of serotonergic innervation in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat, shown by triple intraocular grafts. Brain Res 1995;673:325-30.
148. Shibata S, Moore RY. Neuropeptide Y and optic chiasm stimulation affect suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian function in vitro. Brain Res 1993;615:95-100.
149. Shibata S, Watanabe A, Hamada T, et al. N-methyl-D-aspartate induces phase shifts in circadian rhythm of neuronal activity of rat SCN in vitro. Am J Physiol 1994;36:R360-4.
150. Srkalovic G, Selim M, Rea MA, et al. Serotonergic inhibition of extracellular glutamate in the suprachiasmatic nuclear region assessed using in vivo brain microdialysis. Brain Res 1994;656:302-8.
151. Morin LP, Johnson RF, Moore RY. Two brain nuclei controlling circadian rhythms are identified by GFAP immunoreactivity in hamsters and rats. Neurosci Lett 1989;99:55-60.
152. Prosser RA, Edgar DM, Heller HC, et al. A possible glial role in the mammalian circadian clock. Brain Res 1994;643:296-301.
153. Rea MA, Glass JD, Colwell CS. Serotonin modulates photic responses in the hamster suprachiasmatic nuclei. J Neurosci 1994;14:3635-42.
154. Miller JD, Fuller CA. The response of suprachiasmatic neurons of the rat hypothalamus to photic and serotonergic stimulation. Brain Res 1990;515:155-62.
155. Ying S, Rusak B. Effects of serotonergic agonists on firing rates of photically responsive cells in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus. Brain Res 1994;651:37-46.
156. Selim M, Glass JD, Hauser UE et al. Serotonergic inhibition of light-induced fos protein expression and extracellular glutamate in the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Brain Res 1993;621: 181-8.
157. Prosser RA, Macdonald ES, Heller HC. c-fos mRNA in the suprachiasmatic nuclei in vitro shows a circadian rhythm and responds to a serotonergic agonist. Mol Brain Res 1994;25: 151-6.
158. Glass JD, Selim M, Rea MA. Modulation of light-induced c-fos expression in the suprachiasmatic nuclei by 5-HT1A receptor agonists. Brain Res 1994;638:235-42.
159. Huang S, Pan J. Potentiating effects of serotonin and vasoactive intestinal peptide on the action of glutamate on suprachiasmatic neurons in brain slices. Neurosci Lett 1993;159:1-4.
160. Biello SM. Enhanced photic phase shifting after treatment with antiserum to neuropeptide Y. Brain Res 1995;673:25-9.
161. Biello SM, Mrosovsky N. Blocking the phase-shifting effect of neuropeptide Y with light. Proc R Soc Lond B 1995;259: 179-87.
162. van den Pol AN, Powley T. A fine-grained anatomical analysis of the role of the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus in circadian rhythms of feeding and drinking. Brain Res 1979;160:307-26.
163. Johnson RF, Moore RY, Morin LP. Paraventricular nucleus efferents mediating photoperiodism in male golden hamsters. Neurosci Lett 1989;98:85-90.
164. Smale L, Cassone V, Moore RY, Morin LP. Paraventricular nucleus projections mediating pineal melatonin and gonadal responses to photoperiod in the hamster. Brain Res Bull 1989;22:263-9.
165. Sherin JE, Shiromani PJ, McCarley RW, Saper CB. Activation of ventrolateral preoptic neurons during sleep. Science 1996;271:216-9.
166. Inouye ST, Kawamura H. Persistence of circadian rhythmicity in a mammalian hypothalamic Aisland@ containing the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1979;76:5962-6.
167. DeCoursey PJ, Buggy J. Circadian rhythmicity after neural transplant to third ventricle - specificity of suprachiasmatic nuclei. Brain Res 1989;500:353-7.
168. Aguilar-Roblero R, Morin LP, Moore RY. Morphological correlates of circadian rhythm restoration induced by transplantation of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in hamsters. Exp Neurol 1994;130:250-60.
169. Schwartz WJ, Gross RA, Morton MT. The suprachiasmatic nuclei contain a tetrodotoxin-resistant circadian pacemaker. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987;84:1694-8.
170. Reppert SM, Schwartz WJ, Uhl GR. Arginine vasopressin: a novel peptide rhythm in cerebrospinal fluid. TINS 1987;10:76-80.
171. Earnest DJ, Sladek CD. Circadian rhythms of vasopressin release from individual rat suprachiasmatic explants in vitro. Brain Res 1986;382:129-33.
172. Gillette MU, Reppert SM. The hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei: circadian patterns of vasopressin secretion and neuronal activity in vitro. Brain Res Bull 1987;19:135-9.
173. Shinohara K, Honma S, Katsuno Y, et al. Circadian rhythms in the release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and arginine-vasopressin in organotypic slice culture of rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Neurosci Lett 1994;170:183-6.
174. Tominaga K, Inouye ST, Okamura, H. Organotypic slice culture of the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: sustenance of cellular architecture and circadian rhythm. Neuroscience 1994;59:1025-42.
175. Murakami N, Takamure M, Takahashi K, et al. Long-term cultured neurons from rat suprachiasmatic nucleus retain the capacity for circadian oscillation of vasopressin release. Brain Res 1991;545:347-50.
176. Watanabe K, Koibuchi N, Ohtake H, et al. Circadian rhythms of vasopressin release in primary cultures of rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Brain Res 1993;624:115-20.
177. Tominaga K, Shinohara K, Otori Y, et al. Circadian rhythms of vasopressin content in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat. NeuroReport 1992;3:809-12.
178. Uhl GR, Reppert SM. Suprachiasmatic nucleus vasopressin messenger RNA: circadian variation in normal and Brattleboro rats. Science 1986;232:390-3.
179. Burbach JPH, Liu B, Voorhuis TAM, et al. Diurnal variation in vasopressin and oxytocin messenger RNAs in hypothalamic nuclei of the rat. Mol Brain Res 1988;4:157-60.
180. Young WS, Kovacs K, Lolait SJ. The diurnal rhythm in vasopressin V1a receptor expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus is not dependent on vasopressin. Endocrinology 1993;133:585-90.
181. Cagampang FRA, Yang J, Nakayama Y, et al. Circadian variation of arginine-vasopressin messenger RNA in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Mol Brain Res 1994;24:179-84.
182. Carter DA, Murphy D. Nuclear mechanisms mediate rhythmic changes in vasopressin mRNA expression in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Mol Brain Res 1991;12:315-21.
183. Wuarin J, Schibler U. Expression of the liver-enriched transcriptional activator protein DBP follows a stringent circadian rhythm. Cell 1990;63:1257-66.
184. Loros JJ, Dunlap JC. Neurospora crassa clock-controlled genes are regulated at the level of transcription. Mol Cell Biol 1991;11:558-63.
185. Millar AJ, Kay SA. Circadian control of cab gene transcription and mRNA accumulation in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 1991;3: 541-50.
186. Pierce ME, Sheshberadaran H, Zhang Z, et al. Circadian regulation of iodopsin gene expression in embryonic photoreceptors in retinal cell culture. Neuron 1993;10:579-84.
187. Stehle JH, Foulkes NS, Molina CA, et al. Adrenergic signals direct rhythmic expression of transcriptional repressor CREM in the pineal gland. Nature 1993;365:314-20.
188. Robinson BG, Frim DM, Schwartz WJ, et al. Vasopressin mRNA in the suprachiasmatic nuclei: daily regulation of polyadenylate tail length. Science 1988;241:342-4.
189. Carter DA, Murphy D. Diurnal rhythm of vasopressin mRNA species in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: independence of neuroendocrine modulation and maintenance in expiant culture. Mol Brain Res 1989;6:233-9.
190. Morse DS, Fritz L, Hastings JW. What is the clock? Translational regulation of circadian bioluminescence. TIBS 1990;15: 262-5.
191. Zwiebel LJ, Hardin PE, Liu X, et al. A post-transcriptional mechanism contributes to circadian cycling of a per-8-galactosidase fusion protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88: 3882-6.
192. Edery I, Zwiebel LJ, Dembinska ME, et al. Temporal phosphorylation of the Drosophila period protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:2260-4.
193. Kruisbrink J, Mirmiran M, Van der Woude TP, et al. Effects of enhanced cerebrospinal fluid levels of vasopressin, vasopressin antagonist or vasoactive intestinal polypeptide on circadian sleep-wake rhythm in the rat. Brain Res 1987;419:76-86.
194. Arnauld E, Bibene V, Meynard J, et al. Effects of chronic icv infusion of vasopressin on sleep-waking cycle of rats. Am J Physiol 1989;256:R674-84.
195. Brown MH, Nunez AA. Vasopressin-deficient rats show a reduced amplitude of the circadian sleep rhythm. Physiol Behav 1989;46:759-62.
196. Inouye ST, Shibata S. Neurochemical organization of circadian rhythm in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Neurosci Res 1994;20: 109-30.
197. Takeuchi J, Nagasaki H, Shinohara K, et al. A circadian rhythm of
198. Zoeller RT, Broyles B, Earley J, et al. Cellular levels of messenger ribonucleic acids encoding vasoactive intestinal peptide and gastrin-releasing peptide in neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus exhibit distinct 24-hour rhythms. J Neuroendocrinol 1992;4:119-24.
199. Fukuhara C, Nishiwaki T, Cagampang FRA, et al. Emergence of VIP rhythmicity following somatostatin depletion in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Brain Res 1994;645:343-6.
200. Glazer R, Gozes I. Diurnal oscillation in vasoactive intestinal peptide gene expression independent of environmental light entraining. Brain Res 1994;644:164-7.
201. Aguilar-Roblero R, Verduzco-Carbajal L, Rodriguez C, et al. Circadian rhythmicity in the GABAergic system in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the rat. Neurosci Lett 1993;157:199-202.
202. Rangarajan R, Heller HC, Miller JD. Chloride channel block phase advances the single unit activity rhythm in the SCN. Brain Res Bull 1994;34:69-72.
203. 14C-labeled deoxyglucose. J Neurosci 1984;4:1677-82.
204. Grahn DA, Miller JD, Heller HC. Persistence of circadian rhythmicity in hibernating ground squirrels. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R1251-8.
205. Miller JD, Cao VH, Heller HC. Temperature effects on neuronal activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of hibernators and non-hibernators. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R1259-66.
206. Davis FC, Gorski RA. Unilateral lesions of the hamster suprachiasmatic nuclei: evidence for redundant control of circadian rhythms. J Comp Physiol 1984;154:221-32.
207. Green DJ, Gillette R. Circadian rhythms of firing rate recorded from single cells in the rat suprachiasmatic brain slice. Brain Res 1982;245:198-200.
208. Miller JD, Fuller CA. Isoperiodic neuronal activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat. Am J Physiol 1992;263: R51-8.
209. Bouskila Y, Dudek FE. Neuronal synchronization without calcium-dependent synaptic transmission in the hypothalamus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;90:3207-10.
210. Masutani H, Nagai K, Nakagawa H. Possible involvement of nitric oxide in generation of circadian rhythm. Biol Rhythm Res 1994;25:433-41.
211. van den Pol AN, Finkbeiner SM, Cornell-Bell SH. Calcium excitability and oscillations in suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons and glia in vitro. J Neurosci 1992;12:2648-64.
212. Glass JD, Lee W, Shen H, et al. Expression of immunoreactive polysialylated cell adhesion molecule in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 1994;60:87-95.
213. Rosbash M, Hall JC. The molecular biology of circadian rhythms. Neuron 1989;3:387-98.
214. Dunlap JC. Genetic analysis of circadian clocks. Ann Rev Physiol 1993;55:683-728.
215. Young MW, ed. Molecular genetics of biological rhythms. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993.
216. Takahashi JS. Molecular neurobiology and genetics of circadian rhythms in mammals. Ann Rev Neurosci 1995;18:531-53.
217. Hall JC. Tripping along the trail to the molecular mechanisms of biological clocks. TINS 1995;18:230-40.
218. Siwicki KK, Schwartz WJ, Hall JC. An antibody to the Drosophila period protein labels antigens in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat. J Neurogenet 1992;8:33-42.
219. Matsui M, Mitsui Y, Ishida N. Circadian regulation of per repeat mRNA in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of rat brain. Neurosci Lett 1993;163:189-92.
220. Ishida M, Matsui M, Nishimatsu S, et al. Molecular cloning of a gene under control of the circadian clock and light in the rodent SCN. Mol Brain Res 1994;26:197-206.
221. Schwartz WJ, Zimmerman P. Circadian timekeeping in BALB/c and C57BL/6 inbred mouse strains. J Neurosci 1990;10:3685-94.
222. Vitaterna MH, Wu JC, Turek FW, et al. Reduced light sensitivity of the circadian clock in a hypopigmented mouse mutant. Exp Brain Res 1993;95:436-42.
223. Davis FC, Menaker M. Development of the mouse circadian pacemaker: independence from environmental cycles. J Comp Physiol [A] 1981;143:527-39.
224. Ralph MR, Menaker M. A mutation of the circadian system in golden hamsters. Science 1988;241:1225-7.
225. Menaker M, Refinetti R. The tau mutation in golden hamsters. In: Young MW, ed. Molecular genetics of biological rhythms. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993:255-69.
226. Loudon ASI, Wayne NL, Krieg R, et al. Ultradian endocrine rhythms are altered by a circadian mutation in the Syrian hamster. Endocrinology 1994;135:712-8.
227. Refinetti R, Menaker M. Evidence for separate control of estrous and circadian periodicity in the golden hamster. Behav Neural Biol 1992;58:27-36.
228. Refinetti R, Menaker M. Independence of heart rate and circadian period in the golden hamster. Am J Physiol 1993;264: R235-8.
229. Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, clock, essential for circadian behavior. Science 1994;264:719-25.
230. Nolan PM, Sollars PJ, Bohne BA, et al. Heterozygosity mapping of partially congenic lines: mapping of a semidominant neurological mutation, wheels (Whl), on mouse chromosome 4. Genetics 1995;140:245-54.