Malaria as a reemerging disease

Epidemiologic Reviews

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 77-89

  Krogstad, Donald J ^a  

^a TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; CHLOROQUINE; DIHYDROFOLATE REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; FANSIDAR; HALOFANTRINE; MALARIA VACCINE; MEFLOQUINE; PYRIMETHAMINE; QUININE; SULFONAMIDE;

DRUG RESISTANCE; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION PREVENTION; INSECT CONTROL; MALARIA; MOSQUITO; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0029786369     PISSN: 0193936X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a017918     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Pampana EJ, Russell PF. Malaria - a world problem. WHO Chron 1955;9:31-96.
2. Pampana EJ. A textbook of malaria eradication. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1963.
3. Bruce-Chwatt LJ. The Manson Oration, May 1979. Man against malaria: conquest or defeat? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1979;73:605-17.
4. Wernsdorfer WH. Epidemiology of drug resistance in malaria. Acta Trop 1994;56:143-56.
5. World malaria situation in 1992. Parts I, II, and III. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 1994;69:309-14, 317-21, 325-30.
6. Insecticide resistance and vector control. Seventeenth report of the WHO Expert Committee on Insecticides. WHO Technical Report Series no. 443. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1970.
7. Warsame M, Wernsdorfer WH, Huldt G, et al. An epidemic of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Balcad, Somalia, and its causation. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1995;89:142-5.
8. Glass RI, Cates W Jr, Nieburg P, et al. Rapid assessment of health status and preventive-medicine needs of newly arrived Kampuchean refugees, Sa Kaeo, Thailand. Lancet 1980;1: 868-72.
9. Asindi AA, Ekanem EE, Ibia EO, et al. Upsurge of malaria-related convulsions in a paediatric emergency room in Nigeria: consequence of emergence of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Trop Geogr Med 1993;45:110-13.
10. Henderson DA. Principles and lessons from the smallpox eradication programme. Bull World Health Organ 1987;65: 535-46.
11. Stuart-Harris C. Prospects for the eradication of infectious diseases. Rev Infect Dis 1984;6:405-11.
12. Hopkins DR, Ruiz-Tiben E, Kaiser RL, et al. Dracunculiasis eradication: beginning of the end. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993;49:281-9.
13. Fenner F. A successful eradication campaign: global eradication of smallpox. Rev Infect Dis 1982;4:916-30.
14. Fenner F, Henderson DA, Arita I, et al. Smallpox and its eradication. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1988.
15. Frieden TR, Fujiwara PI, Washko RM, et al. Tuberculosis in New York City - turning the tide. N Engl J Med 1995;333: 229-33.
16. Hayden FG, Hay AJ. Emergence and transmission of influenza A viruses resistant to amantadine and rimantadine. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1992;176:119-30.
17. Beales PF. The use of drugs for malaria control. In: Wernsdorfer WH, McGregor I. Malaria: principles and practice of malariology. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone, 1988:1263-85.
18. Pinotti M. Considerazioni generali sopra il piano di lotta contro la malaria, nell'Amazzonia brasiliana, col metodo del sale clorochinato. (In Italian). Rev Parassitol 1959;20: 345-53.
19. Payne D. Did medicated salt hasten the spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum? Parasitol Today 1988; 6:112-15.
20. Clyde DF. Recent trends in the epidemiology and control of malaria. Epidemiol Rev 1987;9:219-43.
21. Verdrager J. Epidemiology of emergence and spread of drug-resistant falciparum malaria in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1986;17:111-18.
22. Payne D. Spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitology Today 1987;3:241-6.
23. Clyde DF, Shute GT. Resistance of East African varieties of Plasmodium falciparum to pyrimethamine. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1954;48:495-500.
24. Clyde DF, Shute GT. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum in Tanganyika to pyrimethamine administered at weekly intervals. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1957;51:505-13.
25. Coatney GR, Mickelsen O, Burgess RW, et al. Chloroquine or pyrimethamine in salt as a suppressive against sporozoite-induced vivax malaria (Chesson strain). Bull World Health Organ 1958;19:53-67.
26. Wolfe MS, Cordero JF. Safety of chloroquine in chemosuppression of malaria during pregnancy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;290:1466-7.
27. Levy M, Buskila D, Gladman DD, et al. Pregnancy outcome following first trimester exposure to chloroquine. Am J Perinatol 1991;8:174-8.
28. Warrell DA, Molyneux ME, Beales PF, eds. Severe and complicated malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1990; 84(Suppl 2):1-65.
29. Sudre P, Breman JG, McFarland D, et al. Treatment of chloroquine-resistant malaria in African children: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Int J Epidemiol 1992;21:146-54.
30. ter Kuile FO, Dolan G, Nosten F, et al. Halofantrine versus mefloquine in treatment of multidrug-resistant falciparum malaria. Lancet 1993;341:1044-9.
31. Weinke T, Held T, Trautmann M, et al. Malaria therapy in 452 patients, with special reference to the use of quinine. J Infect 1992;25:173-80.
32. Rieckmann KH, Davis DR, Hutton DC. Plasmodium vivax resistance to chloroquine? Lancet 1989;2:1183-4.
33. Tan-ariya P, Na-Bangchang K, Tin T, et al. Clinical response and susceptibility in vitro of Plasmodium vivax to the standard regimen of chloroquine in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1995;89:426-9.
34. Myat-Phone-Kyaw, Myint-Oo, Myint-Lwin, et al. Emergence of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax in Myanmar (Burma). Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993;87:687.
35. Garavelli PL, Corti E. Chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium vivax: the first case in Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992;86:128.
36. Arias AE, Corredor A. Low response of Colombian strains of Plasmodium vivax to classical antimalarial therapy. Trop Med Parasitol 1989;40:21-3.
37. Duverseau YT, Magloire R, Zevallos-Ipenza A, et al. Monitoring of chloroquine sensitivity of Plasmodium falciparum in Haiti, 1981-1983. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986;35:459-64.
38. Berliner RW, Earle DP Jr, Taggart JV, et al. Studies on the chemotherapy of the human malarias. VI. The physiological disposition, antimalarial activity, and toxicity of several derivatives of 4-aminoquinoline. J Clin Invest 1948;27(suppl): 98-107.
39. Most H, London IM, Kane CA, et al. Chloroquine for treatment of acute attacks of vivax malaria. J Am Med Assoc 1946;131:963-7.
40. Pullman TN, Craige B Jr, Alving AS, et al. Comparison of chloroquine, quinacrine (Atabrine) and quinine in the treatment of acute attacks of sporozoite-induced vivax malaria (Chesson strain): preliminary report. J Clin Invest 1948; 27(suppl):46-50.
41. Coatney GR. Pitfalls in a discovery: the chronicle of chloroquine. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1963;12:121-8.
42. Moore DV, Lanier JE. Observations on two Plasmodium falciparum infections with abnormal response to chloroquine. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1961;10:5-9.
43. Harinasuta T, Migasen S, Bunnag D. UNESCO 1st Regional Symposium on Scientific Knowledge of Tropical Parasites, University of Singapore, November 5-9, 1962. Singapore, Malaysia: University of Singapore, 1962:143-53.
44. Campbell CC, Chin W, Collins WE, et al. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum from East Africa: cultivation and drug sensitivity of the Tanzanian I/CDC strain from an American tourist. Lancet 1979;2:1151-4.
45. Wellems TE, Panton LJ, Gluzman IY, et al. Chloroquine resistance not linked to mdr-like genes in a Plasmodium falciparum cross. Nature 1990;345:253-5.
46. Wellems TE, Walker-Jonah A, Panton LJH. Genetic mapping of the chloroquine-resistance locus on Plasmodium falciparum chromosome 7. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991; 88:3382-6.
47. Martin SK, Oduola AMJ, Milhous WK. Reversal of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum by verapamil. Science 1987;235:899-901.
48. Krogstad DJ, Gluzman IY, Kyle DE, et al. Efflux of chloroquine from Plasmodium falciparum: mechanism of chloroquine resistance. Science 1987;238:1283-5.
49. Gluzman IY, Krogstad DJ, Orjih AU, et al. A rapid in vitro test for chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990;42;521-6.
50. Krogstad DJ, Gluzman IY, Wellems TE, et al. Characterization of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. In: Peregrine AS, ed. Proceedings of a Symposium on the Chemotherapy of Trypanosomiasis. Nairobi, Kenya: International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases, 1990: 85-90.
51. Baird JK, Basri H, Subianto B, et al. Treatment of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax with chloroquine and primaquine or halofantrine. J Infect Dis 1995;171:1678-82.
52. Cooper RD, Rieckmann KH. Efficacy of amodiaquine against a chloroquine-resistant strain of Plasmodium vivax. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1990;84:473.
53. Collins WE, Schwartz IK, Skinner JC, et al. The susceptibility of the Indonesian I/CDC strain of Plasmodium vivax to chloroquine. J Parasitol 1992;78:344-9.
54. Renapurkar DM, Pradhan VR, Sutar NK, et al. Micro test for assaying sensitivity of Plasmodium vivax in vitro. Chemotherapy 1989;35:160-3.
55. Trager W, Jensen JB. Human malaria parasites in continuous culture. Science 1976;193:673-5.
56. Thaithong S, Chan SW, Songsomboon S, et al. Pyrimethamine resistant mutations in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1992;52:149-57.
57. Eldin de Pecoulas P, Basco LK, Abdallah B, et al. Plasmodium falciparum: detection of antifolate resistance by mutation-specific restriction enzyme digestion. Exp Parasitol 1995;80:483-7.
58. Gyang FN, Peterson DS, Wellems TE. Plasmodium falciparum: rapid detection of dihydrofolate reductase mutations that confer resistance to cycloguanil and pyrimethamine. Exp Parasitol 1992;74:470-2.
59. Peterson DS, Walliker D, Wellems TE. Evidence that a point mutation in dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase confers resistance to pyrimethamine in falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988;85:9114-18.
60. Peterson DS, Milhous WK, Wellems TE. Molecular basis of differential resistance to cycloguanil and pyrimethamine in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990;87:3018-22.
61. Peterson DS, Di Santi SM, Povoa M, et al. Prevalence of the dihydrofolate reductase Asn-108 mutation as the basis of pyrimethamine resistant falciparum malaria in the Brazilian Amazon. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991;45:492-7.
62. Beverley SM. Gene amplification in Leishmania. Annu Rev Microbiol 1991;45:417-44.
63. Plowe CV, Djimde A, Bourare M, et al. Pyrimethamine and proguanil resistance-conferring mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase: polymerase chain reaction methods for surveillance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995;52:565-8.
64. Viriyakosol S, Siripoon N, Zhu XP, et al. Plasmodium falciparum: selective growth of subpopulations from field samples following in vitro culture, as detected by the polymerase chain reaction. Exp Parasitol 1994;79:517-25.
65. Thaithong S, Beale GH, Chutmongkonkul M. Varibility in drug susceptibility amongst clones and isolates of Plasmodium falciparum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1988;82:33-6.
66. Doberstyn EB, Teerakiartkamjorn C, Andre RG, et al. Treatment of vivax malaria with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and with pyrimethamine alone. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1979;73:15-17.
67. Darlow B, Vrbova H, Gibney S, et al. Sulfadoxine-pyrimetharnine for the treatment of acute malaria in children of Papua New Guinea. II. Plasmodium vivax. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1982;31:10-13.
68. Mharakurwa S, Mugochi T. Chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria in an area of rising endemicity in Zimbabwe. J Trop Med Hyg 1994;97:39-45.
69. Soto J, Martinez R, Fonschiffrey G, et al. Efficacy of Fansidar for acute uncomplicated malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum in Colombia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1995; 89:306.
70. Keuter M, Sanders J, Ronday M, et al. Parasitological, clinical and haematological response of children with Plasmodium falciparum to 4-aminoquinolines and to pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine with quinine in western Kenya. Trop Geogr Med 1992;44:1-8.
71. Vollenhoven I, Wetsteyn JC. Chloroquine resistance of Plasmodium falciparum in Bukumbi, Tanzania: an in vivo study. Trop Geogr Med 1992;44:182-5.
72. Ziba C, Nwanyanwu OC, Kazembe PN, et al. Sustained efficacy of sulfadoxine-pyrimetharnine as first-line treatment for malaria in under five Malawian children. (Abstract 591). Abstracts of the 44th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, San Antonio, Texas, December 1995. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press, 1995: 281.
73. Watt G, Padre LP, Tuazon LR, et al. Fansidar resistance in the Philippines. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1987;81:521.
74. Lasserre R. Traitement du paludisme a souches multi-résistantes de P. falciparum en Asie du Sud-Est. (In French). Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 1989;82:94-100.
75. Childs GE, Sabchareon A, Chongsuphajaisiddi T, et al. Analysis of resistance to pyrimethamine/sulphadoxine of isolates of Plasmodium falciparum from eastern Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1986;80:66-8.
76. Brooks DR, Wang P, Read M, et al. Sequence variation of the hydroxymethyldihydropterin pyrophosphokinase: dihydropteroate synthase gene in lines of the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, with differing resistance to sulfadoxine. Eur J Biochem 1994;224:397-405.
77. Wang P, Brooks DR, Sims PF, et al. A mutation-specific PCR system to detect sequence variation in the dihydropteroate synthetase gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1995;71:115-25.
78. Schapira A, Bygbjerg IC, Jepsen S, et al. The susceptibility of Plasmodium falciparum to sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine: correlation of in vivo and in vitro results. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986;35:239-45.
79. Trenholme CM, Williams RL, Desjardins RE, et al. Mefloquine (WR 142,490) in the treatment of human malaria. Science 1975;190:792-4.
80. Boudreau EF, Webster HK, Pavanand K, et al. Type II mefloquine resistance in Thailand. (Letter). Lancet 1982;2: 1335.
81. Childs GE, Bourdeau EF, Wimonwattratee T, Pang L, et al. In vitro and clinical correlates of mefloquine resistance of Plasmodium falciparum in eastern Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991;44:553-9.
82. Ketrangsee S, Vijaykadga S, Yamokgul P, et al. Comparative trial on the response of Plasmodium falciparum to halofantrine and mefloquine in Trat Province, eastern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1992;23:55-8.
83. Fontanet AL, Johnston DB, Walker AM, et al. High prevalence of mefloquine-resistant falciparum malaria in eastern Thailand. Bull World Health Organ 1993;71:377-83.
84. Lobel HO, Miani M, Eng T, et al. Long-term malaria prophylaxis with weekly mefloquine. Lancet 1993;341:848-51.
85. Steffen R, Fuchs E, Schildknecht J, et al. Mefloquine compared with other malaria chemoprophylactic regimens in tourists visiting East Africa. Lancet 1993;341:1299-303.
86. Jepsen S, Fogh S, Peterslund N, et al. RII-RIII chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria from East Africa: studies of the in vivo and in vitro response to chloroquine. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1983;77:349-54.
87. Cowman AF, Galatis D, Thompson JK. Selection for mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum is linked to amplification of the pfmdr1 gene and cross-resistance to halofantrine and quinine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91: 1143-7.
88. Peel SA, Bright P, Young B, et al. A strong association between mefloquine resistance and amplification, overexpression, and mutation in the P-glycoprotein gene homolog (pfmdr) of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1994;51:648-58.
89. Barnes DA, Foote SJ, Galatis D, et al. Selection for high-level chloroquine resistance results in deamplification of the pfmdr1 gene and increased sensitivity to mefloquine in Plasmodium falciparum. EMBO J 1992;11:3067-75.
90. Oduola AMJ, Omitowoju GO, Gerena L, et al. Reversal of mefloquine resistance with penfluridol in isolates of Plasmodium falciparum from south-west Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993;87:81-3.
91. Horton RJ, Parr SN, Bokor LC. Clinical experience with halofantrine in the treatment of malaria. Drugs Exp Clin Res 1990;16:497-503.
92. Shanks GD, Watt G, Edstein MD, et al. Halofantrine for the treatment of mefloquine chemoprophylaxis failures in Plasmodium falciparum infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991; 45:488-91.
93. Wilson CM, Volkman SK, Thaithong S, et al. Amplification of pfmdr1 associated with mefloquine and halofantrine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum from Thailand. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1993;57:151-60.
94. Wongsrichanalai C, Webster HK, Wimonwattrawatee T, et al. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum in Thailand: in vitro tracking. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992; 47:112-16.
95. Looareesuwan S, Harinasuta T, Chongsuphajaisiddhi T. Drug resistant malaria, with special reference to Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1992;23:621-34.
96. Taylor TE, Wills BA, Kazembe PN, et al. Rapid coma resolution with artemether in Malawian children with cerebral malaria. Lancet 1993;341:661-2.
97. Basco LK, Le Bras J. In vitro activity of artemsinin derivatives against African isolates and clones of Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993;49:301-7.
98. Brewer TG, Grate SJ, Peggins JO, et al. Fatal neurotoxicity of arteether and artemether. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1994;51: 251-9.
99. van Hensbroek MB, Onyiorah E, Jaffer S, et al. A trial of artemether or quinine in children with cerebral malaria. N Engl J Med 1996;335:69-75.
100. Hie TTS, Day NPH, Phi NH, et al. A controlled trial of artemether or quinine in Vietnamese adults with severe falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 1996;335:76-83.
101. De D, Krogstad FM, Cogswell FB, et al. Aminoquinolines that circumvent resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg (in press).
102. Gabaldon A. Difficulties confronting malaria eradication. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1972;21:634-9.
103. Bruce-Chwatt LJ. Malaria research for malaria eradication. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1965;59:105-37.
104. Miller MA, Amrhein JF. Maternal transfer of organochlorine compounds in Lake Superior siscowet (Salvelinus namaycush siscowet) to their eggs. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1995;55:96-103.
105. Scott JG, Dong K. kdr-Type resistance in insects with special reference to the German cockroach, Blattella germanica. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1994;109: 191-8.
106. 2+ exchange system in the Kdr-type, DDT and pyrethroid-resistant German cockroach, Blattella germanica. Comp Biochem Physiol [C] 1985;81:97-103.
107. Williamson MS, Denholm I, Bell CA, et al. Knockdown resistance (kdr) to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides maps to a sodium channel gene locus in the housefly (Musca domestica). Mol Gen Genet 1993;240:17-22.
108. Roberts DR, Andre RG. Insecticide resistance issues in vector-borne disease control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1994; 50(6 Suppl):21-34.
109. Brown GB, Gaupp JE, Olsen RW. Pyrethroid insecticides: stereospecific allosteric interaction with the batrachotoxinin-A benzoate binding site of mammalian voltage-sensitive sodium channels. Mol Pharmacol 1988;34:54-9.
110. Knipple DC, Doyle KE, Marsella-Herrick PA, et al. Tight genetic linkage between the kdr insecticide resistance trait and a voltage-sensitive sodium channel gene in the house fly. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994;91:2483-7.
111. Hemingway J, Ketterman AJ. Partial purification and characterization of glutatione S-transferase involved in DDT resistance from the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Pesticide Biochem Physiol 1993;47:119-53.
112. Bull DL, Harris RL, Pryor NW. The contribution of metabolism to pyrethroid and DDT resistance in the horn fly (Diptera: Muscidae). J Econ Entomol 1988;81:449-58.
113. Sexton JD. Impregnated bed nets for malaria control: biological success and social responsibility. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1994;50(6 Suppl):72-81.
114. Doumbo O, Traore SF, Sow Y, et al. Impact des rideaux et convertures impregnes de permethrine sur les indices paludometriques et le numbre d'acces palustre de savine Malienne: resultats preliminaires de la lre annee d'etude. (In French). Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1991;84:761-74.
115. Sexton JD, Ruebush TK II, Brandling-Bennett AD, et al. Permethrin-impregnated curtains and bed-nets prevent malaria in western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990;43:11-18.
116. Mbogo CN, Snow RW, Khamala CP, et al. Relationships between Plasmodium falciparum transmission by vector populations and the incidence of severe disease at nine sites on the Kenyan coast. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995;52:201-6.
117. Nevill CG, Some ES, Mungala VO, et al. Insecticide-treated bednets reduce mortality and severe morbidity from malaria among children on the Kenyan coast. Trop Med Int Health 1996;1:139-46.
118. Binka FN, Kubaje A, Adjuik M, et al. Impact of permethrin impregnated bednets on child mortality in Kassena-Kankana district, Ghana: a ranodmized controlled trial. Trop Med Int Health 1996;1:147-54.
119. Curtis CF. Impregnated bednets, malaria control and child mortality in Africa. (Editorial). Trop Med Int Health 1996; 1:137-8.
120. Lindsay SW, Adiamah JH, Miller JE, et al. Pyrethorid-treated bednet effects on mosquitoes of the Anopheles gambiae complex in The Gambia. Med Vet Entomol 1991;5: 477-83.
121. Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong JR, et al. The effect of insecticide-treated bednets on the mortality of Gambian children. Lancet 1991;337:1499-502.
122. Elissa N, Mouchet J, Riviere F, et al. Resistance of Anopheles gamblae s.s. to pyrethroids in Cote d'Ivoire. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 1993;73:291-4.
123. Chakravorthy BC, Kalyanasundaram M. Selection of permethrin resistance in the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi. Indian J Malariol 1992;29:161-5.
124. Nussenzweig RS, Vanderberg JP, Most H, et al. Protective immunity produced by the injection of x-irradiated sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei. Nature 1967;216:160-2.
125. Hoffman SL, Oster CN, Plowe CV, et al. Naturally acquired antibodies to sporozoites do not prevent malaria: vaccine development implications. Science 1987;237:639-42.
126. Nardin EH, Nussenzweig RS, McGregor IA, et al. Antibodies to sporozoites: their frequent occurrence in individuals living in an area of hyperendemic malaria. Science 1979;206: 597-9.
127. Weiss WR, Sedegah M, Beaudoin RL, et al. CD8+ T cells (cytotoxic/suppressors) are required for protection in mice immunized with malaria sporozoites. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988;85:573-6.
128. Nardin EH, Herrington DA, Davis J, et al. Conserved repetitive epitope recognized by CD4+ clones from a malaria-immunized volunteer. Science 1989;246:1603-6.
129. Good MF, Pombo D, Quakyi IA, et al. Human T-cell recognition of the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum: immunodominant T-cell domains map to the polymorphic regions of the molecule. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988;85:1199-203.
130. Gordon DM, McGovern TW, Krzych U, et al. Safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of a recombinantly produced Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein-hepatitis B surface antigen subunit vaccine. J Infect Dis 1995;171: 1576-85.
131. Brown AE, Singharaj P, Webster HK, et al. Safety, immunogenicity and limited efficacy study of a recombinant Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite vaccine in Thai soldiers. Vaccine 1994;12:102-8.
132. Patarroyo ME, Romero P, Torres ML, et al. Induction of protective immunity against experimental infection with malaria using synthetic peptides. Nature 1987;328:629-32.
133. Valero MV, Amador LR, Galiado C, et al. Vaccination with SPf66, a chemically synthesized vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Colombia. Lancet 1993;341:705-10.
134. D'Alessandro U, Leach A, Drakeley CJ, et al. Efficacy trial of malaria vaccine SPf66 in Gambian infants. Lancet 1995; 346:462-7.
135. Alonso PL, Smith T, Schellenberg JR, et al. Randomised trial of efficacy of SPf66 vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children in southern Tanzania. Lancet 1994;344: 1175-81.
136. Siddiqui WA, Tam LQ, Kramer KJ, et al. Merozoite surface coat precursor protein completely protects Aotus monkeys against Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987;84:3014-18.
137. Sim BK, Chitnis CE, Wasniowska K, et al. Receptor and ligand domains for invasion of erythrocytes by Plasmodium falciparum. Science 1994;264:1941-4.
138. Anders RF, McColl DJ, Coppel RL. Molecular variation in Plasmodium falciparum: polymorphic antigens of asexual erythrocytic stages. Acta Trop 1993;53:239-53.
139. Barr PJ, Green KM, Gibson HL, et al. Recombinant Pfs25 protein of Plasmodium falciparum elicits malaria transmission-blocking immunity in experimental animals. J Exp Med 1991;174:1203-8.
140. Read D, Lensen AH, Begarnie S, et al. Transmission-blocking antibodies against multiple, non-variant target epitopes of the Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface antigen Pfs230 are all complement-fixing. Parasite Immunol 1994;16: 511-19.
141. Carter R, Graves PM, Quakyi IA, et al. Restricted or absent immune responses in human populations to Plasmodium falciparum gamete antigens that are targets of malaria transmission-blocking antibodies. J Exp Med 1989;169:135-47.
142. Riley EM, Williamson KC, Greenwood BM, et al. Human immune recognition of recombinant proteins representing discrete domains of the Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface protein, Pfs230. Parasite Immunol 1995;17:11-19.
143. Krogstad DJ, Ruebush TK II. Community participation in the control of tropical diseases. Acta Trop 1996;61:77-8.