Estimating the peasant population of late imperial Russia from the 1897 census: A research note

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 48, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 141-153

  Moon, David ^a  

^a NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CENSUS (1897); DOCUMENTARY SOURCE; HISTORICAL STUDIES; NINETEENTH CENTURY; PEASANT POPULATION; SOCIAL COMPOSITION;

RUSSIA;

EID: 0029773282     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139608412337     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. G. T. Robinson, Rural Russia under the Old Regime (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1932 and 1960), pp. 94, 288-289. European Russia included the 50 provinces of the empire west of the Urals, excluding the Caucasus region, Poland and Finland. In addition to the regions where Russians made up the majority of the population, 'European Russia' included Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia (present-day Moldova), the Crimean peninsula and the ethnically-mixed region between the mid-Volga and southern Urals.
2. N. V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, 5th edn (Oxford, 1993), p. 430.
3. T. Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society' (The Roots of Otherness: Russia's Turn of the Century, vol. 1) (Basingstoke and London, 1986), p. 102.
4. K. B. Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda o krest'yanstve Rossii: (Istochnikovedcheskii aspekt)', Istoriya SSSR, 1990, 1, pp. 114-126. See also L. Schwanz, 'A History of Russian and Soviet Censuses', in R. S. Clem (ed.), Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1986), pp. 50-52; P. R. Craumer, "Index and Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, 1897 to 1979', in ibid., pp. 191-203; Ya. A. Plyushchevskii-Plyushchik, 'Otchet upolnomochennogo po Vysochaishemu poveleniyu dlya ob'edineniya deistviya mestnykh uchrezhdenii po Pervoi Vseobshchei Perepisi Naseleniya 28 yanvarya 1897 goda v Tverskoi, Yaroslavskoi i Kostromskoi guberniyakh', Vremennik Tsentral'nogo Statisticheskogo Komiteta, Ministerstva Vnutrennikh Del, 1898
5. K. B. Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda o krest'yanstve Rossii: (Istochnikovedcheskii aspekt)', Istoriya SSSR, 1990, 1, pp. 114-126. See also L. Schwanz, 'A History of Russian and Soviet Censuses', in R. S. Clem (ed.), Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1986), pp. 50-52; P. R. Craumer, "Index and Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, 1897 to 1979', in ibid., pp. 191-203; Ya. A. Plyushchevskii-Plyushchik, 'Otchet upolnomochennogo po Vysochaishemu poveleniyu dlya ob'edineniya deistviya mestnykh uchrezhdenii po Pervoi Vseobshchei Perepisi Naseleniya 28 yanvarya 1897 goda v Tverskoi, Yaroslavskoi i Kostromskoi guberniyakh', Vremennik Tsentral'nogo Statisticheskogo Komiteta, Ministerstva Vnutrennikh Del, 1898
6. K. B. Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda o krest'yanstve Rossii: (Istochnikovedcheskii aspekt)', Istoriya SSSR, 1990, 1, pp. 114-126. See also L. Schwanz, 'A History of Russian and Soviet Censuses', in R. S. Clem (ed.), Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1986), pp. 50-52; P. R. Craumer, "Index and Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, 1897 to 1979', in ibid., pp. 191-203; Ya. A. Plyushchevskii-Plyushchik, 'Otchet upolnomochennogo po Vysochaishemu poveleniyu dlya ob'edineniya deistviya mestnykh uchrezhdenii po Pervoi Vseobshchei Perepisi Naseleniya 28 yanvarya 1897 goda v Tverskoi, Yaroslavskoi i Kostromskoi guberniyakh', Vremennik Tsentral'nogo Statisticheskogo Komiteta, Ministerstva Vnutrennikh Del, 1898
7. K. B. Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda o krest'yanstve Rossii: (Istochnikovedcheskii aspekt)', Istoriya SSSR, 1990, 1, pp. 114-126. See also L. Schwanz, 'A History of Russian and Soviet Censuses', in R. S. Clem (ed.), Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1986), pp. 50-52; P. R. Craumer, "Index and Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, 1897 to 1979', in ibid., pp. 191-203; Ya. A. Plyushchevskii-Plyushchik, 'Otchet upolnomochennogo po Vysochaishemu poveleniyu dlya ob'edineniya deistviya mestnykh uchrezhdenii po Pervoi Vseobshchei Perepisi Naseleniya 28 yanvarya 1897 goda v Tverskoi, Yaroslavskoi i Kostromskoi guberniyakh', Vremennik Tsentral'nogo Statisticheskogo Komiteta, Ministerstva Vnutrennikh Del, 1898
8. The census did not cover the non-Russian population of the Grand Duchy of Finland and the Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara.
9. N. A. Troinitskii (ed.), Obshchii svod po imperii rezul'tatov razrabotki dannykh pervoi vseobshchei perepisi naseleniya, proizvedennoi 28 Yanvarya 1897 goda, 2 vols (St Petersburg, 1905); H. Bauer, A. Kappeler & B. Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches in der Volkszählung von 1897, 2 vols (Stuttgart, 1991); A. Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich: Entstehung, Geschichte, Zufall (Munich, 1992), pp. 321-331.
10. N. A. Troinitskii (ed.), Obshchii svod po imperii rezul'tatov razrabotki dannykh pervoi vseobshchei perepisi naseleniya, proizvedennoi 28 Yanvarya 1897 goda, 2 vols (St Petersburg, 1905); H. Bauer, A. Kappeler & B. Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches in der Volkszählung von 1897, 2 vols (Stuttgart, 1991); A. Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich: Entstehung, Geschichte, Zufall (Munich, 1992), pp. 321-331.
11. N. A. Troinitskii (ed.), Obshchii svod po imperii rezul'tatov razrabotki dannykh pervoi vseobshchei perepisi naseleniya, proizvedennoi 28 Yanvarya 1897 goda, 2 vols (St Petersburg, 1905); H. Bauer, A. Kappeler & B. Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches in der Volkszählung von 1897, 2 vols (Stuttgart, 1991); A. Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich: Entstehung, Geschichte, Zufall (Munich, 1992), pp. 321-331.
12. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 161, 163 (Table VIII); Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', p. 114.
13. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 161, 163 (Table VIII); Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', p. 114.
14. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
15. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
16. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
17. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
18. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
19. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
20. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
21. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
22. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
23. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii (hereafter SZ), 1st edn (St Petersburg, 1832), book IV. Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, esp. pp. 121-225, arts. 386-712; Bauer, Kappeler & Roth (eds), Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 1, pp. 377-429; G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm and Russian Social History', American Historical Review, 91, 1986, pp. 11-36; E. Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 9, 11; J. Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 592-600; J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, England, 1985), pp. 376-378; P. Gatrell, The Tsarist Economy 1850-1917 (London, 1986), pp. 194-201, 218-221; F. W. Wcislo, Reforming Rural Russia: State, Local Society, and National Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1990), pp. 28-35, 67-80, 175-176, 186-187, 227, 238-240; D. Atkinson, 'The Zemstvo and the Peasantry', in T. Emmons & W. S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, England, 1982), pp. 79-96.
24. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
25. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
26. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
27. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
28. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
29. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
30. For a few examples of the enormous literature on definitions of peasants see T. Shanin (ed.), Peasants and Peasant Societies: Selected Readings, 2nd edition (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1988), especially pp. 2-9, 62-68, 121-124, 176-196, 467-475; R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975), p. 13; E. Le Roy Ladurie, 'Peasants', in P. Burke (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 13, Companion Volume (Cambridge, England, 1979), pp. 115-117; R. Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956), pp. 25-31 and 67-70; E. R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), pp. 2-4; P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 123-36; and a number of articles in the early volumes of the journal Peasant Studies Newsletter/Peasant Studies.
31. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. xiii.
32. R. H. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, 1855-1914 (Basingstoke and London, 1987), esp. pp. 5-11, 23-24, 190-193; N. Krasnov, Materialy dlya geografii i Statistik! Rossii, sobrannye ofitserami General'nogo Shtaba: Zemlya Voiska Donskogo (St Petersburg, 1863), pp. 233-235; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, p. 161 (Table VIII). The 'Little Russian' Cossacks of Left-Bank Ukraine were classified as state peasants and, after 1783, paid the poll tax. SZ, 1 (1832), book III, Ustavy Kazennogo Upravleniya, part 1, pp. 2, 7 (arts 6, 14).
33. R. H. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, 1855-1914 (Basingstoke and London, 1987), esp. pp. 5-11, 23-24, 190-193; N. Krasnov, Materialy dlya geografii i Statistik! Rossii, sobrannye ofitserami General'nogo Shtaba: Zemlya Voiska Donskogo (St Petersburg, 1863), pp. 233-235; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, p. 161 (Table VIII). The 'Little Russian' Cossacks of Left-Bank Ukraine were classified as state peasants and, after 1783, paid the poll tax. SZ, 1 (1832), book III, Ustavy Kazennogo Upravleniya, part 1, pp. 2, 7 (arts 6, 14).
34. R. H. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, 1855-1914 (Basingstoke and London, 1987), esp. pp. 5-11, 23-24, 190-193; N. Krasnov, Materialy dlya geografii i Statistik! Rossii, sobrannye ofitserami General'nogo Shtaba: Zemlya Voiska Donskogo (St Petersburg, 1863), pp. 233-235; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, p. 161 (Table VIII). The 'Little Russian' Cossacks of Left-Bank Ukraine were classified as state peasants and, after 1783, paid the poll tax. SZ, 1 (1832), book III, Ustavy Kazennogo Upravleniya, part 1, pp. 2, 7 (arts 6, 14).
35. R. H. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, 1855-1914 (Basingstoke and London, 1987), esp. pp. 5-11, 23-24, 190-193; N. Krasnov, Materialy dlya geografii i Statistik! Rossii, sobrannye ofitserami General'nogo Shtaba: Zemlya Voiska Donskogo (St Petersburg, 1863), pp. 233-235; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, p. 161 (Table VIII). The 'Little Russian' Cossacks of Left-Bank Ukraine were classified as state peasants and, after 1783, paid the poll tax. SZ, 1 (1832), book III, Ustavy Kazennogo Upravleniya, part 1, pp. 2, 7 (arts 6, 14).
36. R. H. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, 1855-1914 (Basingstoke and London, 1987), esp. pp. 5-11, 23-24, 190-193; N. Krasnov, Materialy dlya geografii i Statistik! Rossii, sobrannye ofitserami General'nogo Shtaba: Zemlya Voiska Donskogo (St Petersburg, 1863), pp. 233-235; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, p. 161 (Table VIII). The 'Little Russian' Cossacks of Left-Bank Ukraine were classified as state peasants and, after 1783, paid the poll tax. SZ, 1 (1832), book III, Ustavy Kazennogo Upravleniya, part 1, pp. 2, 7 (arts 6, 14).
37. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
38. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
39. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
40. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
41. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
42. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
43. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
44. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
45. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
46. Figures calculated from Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. 161 (Table VIII) and vol. 2, p. 265 (Table XX-a). On the legal status of townspeople and the definition of towns and cities used in the census, see SZ, 1 (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 74-75, arts 240-241, pp. 87-88, art. 287, p. 126, art. 392; Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, p. iv; R. H. Rowland, 'Urbanization and Migration Data in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem, Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses, pp. 114-115; Ya. E. Vodarskii, Naselenie Rossii za 400 let (XVI-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1973), pp. 65-68 . On the reclassification of some peasants as townspeople after 1775 see J. M. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia 1600-1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 209-212.
47. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, pp. xiii, 162; SZ, (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 226-251, arts 713-832; Y. Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London, 1994), pp. 83-92.
48. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, pp. xiii, 162; SZ, (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 226-251, arts 713-832; Y. Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London, 1994), pp. 83-92.
49. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, pp. xiii, 162; SZ, (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 226-251, arts 713-832; Y. Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London, 1994), pp. 83-92.
50. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. I, pp. xiii, 162; SZ, (1832), book IV, Zakony o Sostoyaniyakh, pp. 226-251, arts 713-832; Y. Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY and London, 1994), pp. 83-92.
51. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 161-162 (Table VIII). On peasant migrants to towns see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 67-68, 87-91; R. E. Johnson, 'Peasant and Proletariat; Migration, Family Patterns, and Regional Loyalties', in B. Eklof & S. Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant: Post-Emancipation Culture and Society (Boston, MA and London, 1990), pp. 81-99; A. Coale, B. A. Anderson & E. Härm, Human Fertility in Russia since the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1979), pp. 174-175.
52. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 161-162 (Table VIII). On peasant migrants to towns see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 67-68, 87-91; R. E. Johnson, 'Peasant and Proletariat; Migration, Family Patterns, and Regional Loyalties', in B. Eklof & S. Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant: Post-Emancipation Culture and Society (Boston, MA and London, 1990), pp. 81-99; A. Coale, B. A. Anderson & E. Härm, Human Fertility in Russia since the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1979), pp. 174-175.
53. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 161-162 (Table VIII). On peasant migrants to towns see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 67-68, 87-91; R. E. Johnson, 'Peasant and Proletariat; Migration, Family Patterns, and Regional Loyalties', in B. Eklof & S. Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant: Post-Emancipation Culture and Society (Boston, MA and London, 1990), pp. 81-99; A. Coale, B. A. Anderson & E. Härm, Human Fertility in Russia since the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1979), pp. 174-175.
54. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 161-162 (Table VIII). On peasant migrants to towns see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 67-68, 87-91; R. E. Johnson, 'Peasant and Proletariat; Migration, Family Patterns, and Regional Loyalties', in B. Eklof & S. Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant: Post-Emancipation Culture and Society (Boston, MA and London, 1990), pp. 81-99; A. Coale, B. A. Anderson & E. Härm, Human Fertility in Russia since the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1979), pp. 174-175.
55. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, p. 256 (Table XX-a); Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, pp. 377-378.
56. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, p. 256 (Table XX-a); Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, pp. 377-378.
57. See Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, Series 2 (St Petersburg, 1830-82) (hereafter PSZ, 2), vol. XLII, p. 998, no. 44745, I, 1-2, (25 June 1867); PSZ, 2, vol. XLIX, sect. 1, p. 6, no. 52983 (1 January 1874), arts 25-27.
58. See Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, Series 2 (St Petersburg, 1830-82) (hereafter PSZ, 2), vol. XLII, p. 998, no. 44745, I, 1-2, (25 June 1867); PSZ, 2, vol. XLIX, sect. 1, p. 6, no. 52983 (1 January 1874), arts 25-27.
59. See J. Bushnell, 'Peasants in Uniform: The Tsarist Army as a Peasant Society', Journal of Social History, 13, Summer 1980, pp. 565-576 (abridged in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 101-114).
60. See J. Bushnell, 'Peasants in Uniform: The Tsarist Army as a Peasant Society', Journal of Social History, 13, Summer 1980, pp. 565-576 (abridged in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 101-114).
61. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
62. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
63. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
64. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
65. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
66. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
67. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
68. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
69. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
70. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
71. 18 B. Eklof, 'Peasants and Schools', in Eklof & Frank (eds), The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 115-118.
72. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. 193-194 (Table IX-a).
73. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. xivi, 264 (Table XX-a). Shanin defined 'potential capitalist farmers' as peasant households employing two or more permanent wage labourers. He estimated that such farmers made up around 1.2-1.8% of the peasantry, around 1.2-1.8 million people in 1897. Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. On the vexed question of the nature of the peasant economy, including the extent of 'differentiation' among the peasantry, see ibid., pp. 93-102, 150-173; Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 70-83. Market-oriented agricultural production developed more quickly in the peripheral parts of the empire: the North-west, the Baltic region, western and southern Ukraine and Siberia. Ibid., p. 139.
74. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. xlvi, 264 (Table XX-a). Shanin defined 'potential capitalist farmers' as peasant households employing two or more permanent wage labourers. He estimated that such farmers made up around 1.2-1.8% of the peasantry, around 1.2-1.8 million people in 1897. Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. On the vexed question of the nature of the peasant economy, including the extent of 'differentiation' among the peasantry, see ibid., pp. 93-102, 150-173; Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 70-83. Market-oriented agricultural production developed more quickly in the peripheral parts of the empire: the North-west, the Baltic region, western and southern Ukraine and Siberia. Ibid., p. 139.
75. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. xlvi, 264 (Table XX-a). Shanin defined 'potential capitalist farmers' as peasant households employing two or more permanent wage labourers. He estimated that such farmers made up around 1.2-1.8% of the peasantry, around 1.2-1.8 million people in 1897. Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. On the vexed question of the nature of the peasant economy, including the extent of 'differentiation' among the peasantry, see ibid., pp. 93-102, 150-173; Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 70-83. Market-oriented agricultural production developed more quickly in the peripheral parts of the empire: the North-west, the Baltic region, western and southern Ukraine and Siberia. Ibid., p. 139.
76. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. xlvi, 264 (Table XX-a). Shanin defined 'potential capitalist farmers' as peasant households employing two or more permanent wage labourers. He estimated that such farmers made up around 1.2-1.8% of the peasantry, around 1.2-1.8 million people in 1897. Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. On the vexed question of the nature of the peasant economy, including the extent of 'differentiation' among the peasantry, see ibid., pp. 93-102, 150-173; Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 70-83. Market-oriented agricultural production developed more quickly in the peripheral parts of the empire: the North-west, the Baltic region, western and southern Ukraine and Siberia. Ibid., p. 139.
77. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. xlvi, 264 (Table XX-a). Shanin defined 'potential capitalist farmers' as peasant households employing two or more permanent wage labourers. He estimated that such farmers made up around 1.2-1.8% of the peasantry, around 1.2-1.8 million people in 1897. Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. On the vexed question of the nature of the peasant economy, including the extent of 'differentiation' among the peasantry, see ibid., pp. 93-102, 150-173; Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 70-83. Market-oriented agricultural production developed more quickly in the peripheral parts of the empire: the North-west, the Baltic region, western and southern Ukraine and Siberia. Ibid., p. 139.
78. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, p. xivi; Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. See also Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 84-85; Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', pp. 115, 121.
79. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, p. xlvi; Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. See also Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 84-85; Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', pp. 115, 121.
80. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, p. xlvi; Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. See also Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 84-85; Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', pp. 115, 121.
81. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, p. xlvi; Shanin, Russia as a 'Developing Society', p. 101. See also Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 84-85; Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', pp. 115, 121.
82. Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. xivi, 264 (Table XX-a).
83. Litvak, 'Perepis' naseleniya 1897 goda', pp. 119-120.
84. Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 268, 272, 276, 280, 288 (Table XX-a).
85. Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. xiii-xiv; L. M. Goryushkin (ed.), Krest'yanstvo Sibiri v epokhu kapitalizma (Novosibirsk, 1983), pp. 31-45, 176-184; S. D. Corrsin, 'Warsaw: Poles and Jews in a Conquered City', in M. F. Hamm (ed.). The City in Late Imperial Russia (Bloomington, IN, 1986), pp. 123-151.
86. Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. xiii-xiv; L. M. Goryushkin (ed.), Krest'yanstvo Sibiri v epokhu kapitalizma (Novosibirsk, 1983), pp. 31-45, 176-184; S. D. Corrsin, 'Warsaw: Poles and Jews in a Conquered City', in M. F. Hamm (ed.). The City in Late Imperial Russia (Bloomington, IN, 1986), pp. 123-151.
87. Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 1, pp. xiii-xiv; L. M. Goryushkin (ed.), Krest'yanstvo Sibiri v epokhu kapitalizma (Novosibirsk, 1983), pp. 31-45, 176-184; S. D. Corrsin, 'Warsaw: Poles and Jews in a Conquered City', in M. F. Hamm (ed.). The City in Late Imperial Russia (Bloomington, IN, 1986), pp. 123-151.
88. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
89. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
90. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die
91. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
92. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
93. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
94. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
95. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
96. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
97. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 265-267 (Table XX-a), pp. 296, 298 (Table XXI), vol. 1, p. 163 (Table VIII); Bauer, Kappeler & Roth, Die Nationalitäten des Russischen Reiches, vol. 2, pp. 277, 280, 281, 300. On sedentarisation of nomads see Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 45, 198-202; I. Kh. Kalmykov, R. Kh. Kereitov & A.-I. M. Sikaliev, Nogaitsy (Cherkessk, 1988), pp. 75-76; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 157, 173-174, 181-186; I. Stebelsky, 'The Frontier in Central Asia', in J. H. Bater & R. A. French (eds), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 157-158. On industrialisation and urbanisation see Gatrell, Tsarist Economy, pp. 141-187; Hamm (ed.), The City in Late Imperial Russia.
98. Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 374-375.
99. For the data see Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich, pp. 323, 328; Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. i-ii, 2. See also B. D. Silver, 'The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem (ed.), Research Guide, p. 72; S. I. Bruk & V. M. Kabuzan, 'Dinamika i etnicheskii sostav naseleniya Rossii v epokhu imperializma (konets XIX v.-1917 g.)', Istoriya SSSR, 1980, 3, pp. 90-91.
100. For the data see Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich, pp. 323, 328; Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. i-ii, 2. See also B. D. Silver, 'The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem (ed.), Research Guide, p. 72; S. I. Bruk & V. M. Kabuzan, 'Dinamika i etnicheskii sostav naseleniya Rossii v epokhu imperializma (konets XIX v.-1917 g.)', Istoriya SSSR, 1980, 3, pp. 90-91.
101. For the data see Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich, pp. 323, 328; Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. i-ii, 2. See also B. D. Silver, 'The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem (ed.), Research Guide, p. 72; S. I. Bruk & V. M. Kabuzan, 'Dinamika i etnicheskii sostav naseleniya Rossii v epokhu imperializma (konets XIX v.-1917 g.)', Istoriya SSSR, 1980, 3, pp. 90-91.
102. For the data see Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich, pp. 323, 328; Troinitskii, Ohshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. i-ii, 2. See also B. D. Silver, 'The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses', in Clem (ed.), Research Guide, p. 72; S. I. Bruk & V. M. Kabuzan, 'Dinamika i etnicheskii sostav naseleniya Rossii v epokhu imperializma (konets XIX v.-1917 g.)', Istoriya SSSR, 1980, 3, pp. 90-91.
103. See Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 2, 374-375 (Table XXIV); Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich, p. 328.
104. See Troinitskii, Obshchii svod, vol. 2, pp. 2, 374-375 (Table XXIV); Kappeler, Russland als Vielevölkerreich, p. 328.