Inter-firm relations and industrial policy: The French and German steel producers and users in the twentieth century

Business History

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 1-25

  Kipping, Matthias ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; INDUSTRIAL POLICY; INTER-FIRM RELATIONS; POLICY DETERMINANT; STATE INTERVENTION; STEEL PRODUCTION;

FRANCE; GERMANY;

EID: 0029769007     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: 17437938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076799600000001     Document Type: Article

References (142)

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7. M. Casson, Entrepreneurship and Business Culture (Aldershot, 1995), Ch.8.
8. State intervention pursues quite often different short-term objectives, e.g. preventing large-scale unemployment and the ensuing social unrest. In the vast majority of cases, however, government measures are characterised as temporary, aiming at making the company/industry viable and competitive again. Anything else would probably be politically suicidal in a modern democracy.
9. This systems view of the economy is inspired by Casson, Entrepreneurship, Ch.8. It does, however, not take the supra-national dimension into account which became increasingly important with the establishment of the European Communities in the 1950s.
10. For an overview of the recent discussions about the objectives and the scope of industrial policy M. Kipping, 'European Industrial Policy in a Global Competitive Economy', in S. Stavridis et al. (eds.), New Challenges to the European Union (Aldershot, 1996).
11. A number of economists have also pointed out the possibility that the state might be 'captured' by powerful interest groups. See, for example, G.J. Stigler, The Citizen and the State (Chicago, 1975).
12. G.B. Richardson, 'The Organisation of Industry', The Economic Journal, Vol.82 (Sept. 1972), pp.883-96.
13. R.H. Coase, 'The Nature of the Firm', Economica, new series, Vol.4 (Nov. 1937), pp. 386-405 and more recently O. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985).
14. R.H. Coase, 'The Nature of the Firm', Economica, new series, Vol.4 (Nov. 1937), pp. 386-405 and more recently O. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985).
15. G. Jones (ed.), Coalitions and Collaboration in International Business (Aldershot, 1993).
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18. For another example of this 'pattern'; see M. Anchordoguy, Computers Inc: Japan's Challenge to IBM (Cambridge, MA, 1989).
19. Chandler, Scale and Scope, pp.393-592. See also U. Wengenroth, 'Competition Abroad - Cooperation at Home: German Industry, 1870-1990', in A.D. Chandler et al. (eds.), Big Business and the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1996).
20. Chandler, Scale and Scope, pp.393-592. See also U. Wengenroth, 'Competition Abroad - Cooperation at Home: German Industry, 1870-1990', in A.D. Chandler et al. (eds.), Big Business and the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1996).
21. P. Fridenson, 'The Relatively Slow Development of Big Business in 20th Century France', in Chandler et al. (eds.), Big Business and the Wealth of Nations.
22. P. Fridenson, 'Atouts et limites de la modernisation par en haut. Les entreprises publiques face à leurs critiques (1944-1986)', in P. Fridenson and A. Straus (eds.), Le ' capitalisme français XIXe-XXe siècle. Blocages et dynamismes d'une croissance (Paris, 1987), pp. 175-94.
23. C.K. Rowley et al. (eds.), The Political Economy of Rent-Seeking (Boston, 1988).
24. L.W. McKenzie, 'Ideal Output and the Interdependence of Firms', Economic Journal, Vol.61 (Dec. 1951), pp.785-803.
25. In his memoirs, the French industrialist Roger Martin criticises this 'fetishism' and points out its negative economic consequences. Soon after his accession to the top of Pont-à-Mousson he therefore divested the company of its steel-making activities, R. Martin, Patron de droit divin ... (Paris, 1984), pp.226-7.
26. M. Kipping, 'Les tôles avant les casseroles. La compétitivité de l'industrie française et les origines de la construction européenne', Entreprises et Histoire, No.5 (June 1994), pp.76-7.
27. This has also changed in recent decades with the appearance of the so-called 'minimills'.
28. For the economics, see F. Ferguson Esposito and L. Esposito, 'Excess Capacity and Market Structure', Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol.56 No.2 (May 1974), pp. 188-94.
29. See, for a detailed description of the following case and a more extensive bibliography, M. Kipping, 'A Confrontational Model of Interfirm Relations? The Case of Steel Producers and Users in France', in M. Davids et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the Conference on Business History, October 1994 (Rotterdam, 1995), pp.248-68.
30. M.J. Rust, 'Business and Politics in the Third Republic: The Comité des Forges and the French Steel Industry 1896-1914' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University, 1973); for a summary and additional details, J.-M. Moine, Les barons du fer. Les maîtres de forges en Lorraine du milieu du 19e siècle aux années trente (Metz/Nancy, 1989), pp.171-5.
31. M.J. Rust, 'Business and Politics in the Third Republic: The Comité des Forges and the French Steel Industry 1896-1914' (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University, 1973); for a summary and additional details, J.-M. Moine, Les barons du fer. Les maîtres de forges en Lorraine du milieu du 19e siècle aux années trente (Metz/Nancy, 1989), pp.171-5.
32. A. Rossiter, 'Experiments with Corporatist Politics in Republican France, 1916-1939', (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford, 1986, pp. 16-24; J.F. Godfrey, Capitalism at War: Industrial Policy and Bureaucracy in France 1914-1918 (Leamington Spa, 1987), pp.49-50, and 221-30.
33. A. Rossiter, 'Experiments with Corporatist Politics in Republican France, 1916-1939', (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford, 1986, pp. 16-24; J.F. Godfrey, Capitalism at War: Industrial Policy and Bureaucracy in France 1914-1918 (Leamington Spa, 1987), pp.49-50, and 221-30.
34. Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp.238-56 and J.-N. Jeanneney, François de Wendel en République. L'argent et le pouvoir, 1914-1940 (Paris, 1976), pp.48-65.
35. Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp.238-56 and J.-N. Jeanneney, François de Wendel en République. L'argent et le pouvoir, 1914-1940 (Paris, 1976), pp.48-65.
36. Rust, thesis, pp. 11-12.
37. Moine, Barons du fer, pp. 153-61, C.H. Kent, 'Camille Cavallier and Pont-à-Mousson: An Industrialist of the Third Republic'(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford, 1972); A. Baudant, Pont-à-Mousson, 1918-1939. Stratégies industrielles d'une dynastie lorraine ' (Paris, 1980).
38. Moine, Barons du fer, pp. 153-61, C.H. Kent, 'Camille Cavallier and Pont-à-Mousson: An Industrialist of the Third Republic'(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford, 1972); A. Baudant, Pont-à-Mousson, 1918-1939. Stratégies industrielles d'une dynastie lorraine ' (Paris, 1980).
39. Moine, Barons du fer, pp. 153-61, C.H. Kent, 'Camille Cavallier and Pont-à-Mousson: An Industrialist of the Third Republic'(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford, 1972); A. Baudant, Pont-à-Mousson, 1918-1939. Stratégies industrielles d'une dynastie lorraine ' (Paris, 1980).
40. Moine, Barons du fer, pp. 193-200.
41. After the First World War they cemented their relationship through cross shareholdings and a common participation in the Saar steel works of Dillingen. In 1920 they also bought the Rombas steel works, sequestered from the Germans. In 1950 the companies merged their Lorraine steel works to create Sidelor. Baudant, Pont-à-Mousson, pp.261-72; Kent, thesis, pp.230-9, 274-9 and 289-99;
42. After the First World War they cemented their relationship through cross shareholdings and a common participation in the Saar steel works of Dillingen. In 1920 they also bought the Rombas steel works, sequestered from the Germans. In 1950 the companies merged their Lorraine steel works to create Sidelor. Baudant, Pont-à-Mousson, pp.261-72; Kent, thesis, pp.230-9, 274-9 and 289-99;
43. P. Mioche, 'La Compagnie de la Marine et Homécourt en Lorraine, 1912-1974', Annales de l'Est Vol.41 No. 1 (1989), pp. 14-16; M. Freyssenet and F. Imbert, La centralisation du capital dans la sidérurgie, 1945-1975 (Paris, 1975), pp.11-15.
44. P. Mioche, 'La Compagnie de la Marine et Homécourt en Lorraine, 1912-1974', Annales de l'Est Vol.41 No. 1 (1989), pp. 14-16; M. Freyssenet and F. Imbert, La centralisation du capital dans la sidérurgie, 1945-1975 (Paris, 1975), pp.11-15.
45. D. Woronoff, Histoire de l'industrie en France. Du XVIe siècle à nos jours (Paris, 1994), pp. 129-34 and, in general, Moine, Barons du fer.
46. D. Woronoff, Histoire de l'industrie en France. Du XVIe siècle à nos jours (Paris, 1994), pp. 129-34 and, in general, Moine, Barons du fer.
47. Mioche, 'La Compagnie de la Marine', pp.4-6. He calls the company a 'big bazaar' (ibid., p.10).
48. Mioche, 'La Compagnie de la Marine', pp.4-6. He calls the company a 'big bazaar' (ibid., p.10).
49. C. Beaud, 'La stratégie de l'investissement dans la société Schneider et Cie (1884-1914)', in F. Caron (ed.), Entrepreneurs et entreprises XIXe-XXe siècles (Paris, 1983), pp.118-31.
50. Rust, thesis, pp.361.
51. For this and the following, see Chandler, Scale and Scope, pp.492-5.
52. Ibid., pp.508-12; C. Kleinschmidt and Th. Welskopp, 'Zu viel "Scale", zu wenig "Scope". Eine Auseinandersetzung mit Alfred D. Chandlers Analyse der deutschen Eisen- und Stahlindustrie in der Zwischenkriegszeit', Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte, No.2, pp.291-2.
53. Ibid., pp.508-12; C. Kleinschmidt and Th. Welskopp, 'Zu viel "Scale", zu wenig "Scope". Eine Auseinandersetzung mit Alfred D. Chandlers Analyse der deutschen Eisen- und Stahlindustrie in der Zwischenkriegszeit', Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte, No.2, pp.291-2.
54. Jeanneney, Français de Wendel, pp.70-72. According to de Wendel, the UIMM had in part been set up to control and limit the influence of the steel users (ibid., p.561). For the conflict between Niclausse and the Comité des Forges, see also H. Coville, Le Syndicat des Industries Mécaniques. Cent ans d'action syndicale (1840-1940) (Paris, 1944), pp. 10-13; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp.230-7 and Rossiter, thesis, pp.24-5.
55. Jeanneney, Français de Wendel, pp.70-72. According to de Wendel, the UIMM had in part been set up to control and limit the influence of the steel users (ibid., p.561). For the conflict between Niclausse and the Comité des Forges, see also H. Coville, Le Syndicat des Industries Mécaniques. Cent ans d'action syndicale (1840-1940) (Paris, 1944), pp. 10-13; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp.230-7 and Rossiter, thesis, pp.24-5.
56. Jeanneney, Français de Wendel, pp.70-72. According to de Wendel, the UIMM had in part been set up to control and limit the influence of the steel users (ibid., p.561). For the conflict between Niclausse and the Comité des Forges, see also H. Coville, Le Syndicat des Industries Mécaniques. Cent ans d'action syndicale (1840-1940) (Paris, 1944), pp. 10-13; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp.230-7 and Rossiter, thesis, pp.24-5.
57. Jeanneney, Français de Wendel, pp.70-72. According to de Wendel, the UIMM had in part been set up to control and limit the influence of the steel users (ibid., p.561). For the conflict between Niclausse and the Comité des Forges, see also H. Coville, Le Syndicat des Industries Mécaniques. Cent ans d'action syndicale (1840-1940) (Paris, 1944), pp. 10-13; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp.230-7 and Rossiter, thesis, pp.24-5.
58. P. Fridenson, Histoire des usines Renault. Vol. I: Naissance de la grande entreprise 1898-1939 (Paris, 1972), pp. 104-6 and 131-40.
59. R. F. Kuisel, Capitalism and the State in Modern France (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 48-50.
60. S.D. Caris, Louis Loucheur and the Shaping of Modern France, 1916-1931 (Baton Rouge, 1993), pp.136-41; C.S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe. Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War I (Princeton, NJ, 2nd edn, 1988), pp.70-6.
61. S.D. Caris, Louis Loucheur and the Shaping of Modern France, 1916-1931 (Baton Rouge, 1993), pp.136-41; C.S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe. Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War I (Princeton, NJ, 2nd edn, 1988), pp.70-6.
62. P. Desgranges, Le comptoir sidérurgique de France. Les comptoirs de vente de la sidérurgie française des origines à 1940 (Paris, 1977), pp.9-31.
63. H. Wolter, Die französische Eisen schaffende Industrie (Düsseldorf, 1953), p.21.
64. O. Hardy-Hémery, De la croissance à la désindustrialisation. Un siècle dans le Valenciennois (Paris, 1984), pp.89-104.
65. Chandler, Scale and Scope, p.550; D.P. Barbezat, 'International Cooperation and Domestic Cartel Control: The International Steel Cartel 1926-1938', (unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1988), pp.63-4.
66. Chandler, Scale and Scope, p.550; D.P. Barbezat, 'International Cooperation and Domestic Cartel Control: The International Steel Cartel 1926-1938', (unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1988), pp.63-4.
67. Kleinschmidt and Welskopp, 'Zu viel "Scale"', pp.260-2 and 287-8.
68. Kleinschmidt and Welskopp, ibid., pp.273-83 explain the merger as an - ultimately insufficient - attempt to avoid the negative consequences of the threatening overcapacity, whereas Chandler, Scale and Scope, pp.550-61 sees it as a move to exploit scale economies.
69. Kleinschmidt and Welskopp, ibid., pp.273-83 explain the merger as an - ultimately insufficient - attempt to avoid the negative consequences of the threatening overcapacity, whereas Chandler, Scale and Scope, pp.550-61 sees it as a move to exploit scale economies.
70. Barbezat, thesis, pp.79-84; for the second ISC, see also D.P. Barbezat, 'A Price for Every Product, Every Place: The International Steel Export Cartel, 1933-39', Business History, Vol.33 No.4 (Oct. 1991), pp.68-86.
71. Quoted by J.-N. Jeanneney, L'argent caché: milieux d'affaires et pouvoirs politiques dans la France du XXe siècle (Paris, 1984), p.31; for details Jeanneney, François de Wendel, pp. 140-9.
72. Quoted by J.-N. Jeanneney, L'argent caché: milieux d'affaires et pouvoirs politiques dans la France du XXe siècle (Paris, 1984), p.31; for details Jeanneney, François de Wendel, pp. 140-9.
73. Barbezat, thesis, p.206.
74. Hardy-Hémery, De la croissance, p.293.
75. Ibid., p. 158-9; Barbezat, thesis, p.69, 125-6 and 208-9.
76. Louis Renault to Joseph de Béco, quoted by Fridenson, Histoire des usines Renault, p.225.
77. Barbezat, thesis, p.78.
78. M. Kipping, 'Competing for Dollars and Technology: The United States and the Modernization of the French and German Steel Industries after World War II', Business and Economic History, Vol.23 No. 1 (Fall, 1994), p.230.
79. P. Mioche, 'La sidérurgie et l'Etat en France des années quarante aux années soixante' (thèse pour le doctorat d'Etat, University of Paris IV, 1992).
80. G. Kiersch, 'Internationale Eisen- und Stahlkartelle' (Ph.D. dissertation, Essen, 1954) and, with more precise data for Germany, Barbezat, thesis, pp.147-60.
81. M. Lévy-Leboyer, 'La grande entreprise: un modèle français?', in: M. Lévy-Leboyer and J.-C. Casanova (eds.), Entre l'Etat et le marché. L'économie française des années 1880 à nos jours (Paris, 1991), pp.393-5.
82. J. Sallot, 'Le contrôle des prix et la sidérurgie française 1937-1974' (thèse de doctorat, University of Paris I, 1993), pp.45-71. See in general H. Dumez and A. Jeunemaître, Diriger l'économie. L'Etat et les prix en France (1936-1986) (Paris, 1989).
83. J. Sallot, 'Le contrôle des prix et la sidérurgie française 1937-1974' (thèse de doctorat, University of Paris I, 1993), pp.45-71. See in general H. Dumez and A. Jeunemaître, Diriger l'économie. L'Etat et les prix en France (1936-1986) (Paris, 1989).
84. A. Philip, 'Les chances d'une économie européenne et à quelles conditions?', public speech on 24 February 1950 in the Théâtre Marigny (Paris, 1950), p.20.
85. Barbezat, thesis, pp. 132-60 and 248-51. See for the relationship between steel producers and users in Germany since 1918. F. Lammert, 'Das Verhältnis zwischen der Eisen schaffenden und der Eisen verarbeitenden Industrie seit dem ersten Weltkrieg' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cologne, 1960).
86. U. Nocken, 'Inter-Industrial Conflicts and Alliances as Exemplified by the AVI-Agreement', in H. Mommsen et al. (eds.), Industrielles System und politische Entwicklung in der Weimarer Republik (Düsseldorf, 1974), pp.693-704 who also points out that the agreement had negative effects on the German economy and the Weimar Republic as a whole, because it helped to maintain the rigid domestic cartels and the reactionary social policies of the steel industry.
87. Kuisel, Capitalism, pp.132-44; P. Burrin, La France à l'heure allemande 1940-1944 (Paris, 1995), pp.234-49; H.W. Ehrmann, Organized Business in France (Princeton, 1957), pp.77-90; for the steel industry P. Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.514-39 and 762-83.
88. Kuisel, Capitalism, pp.132-44; P. Burrin, La France à l'heure allemande 1940-1944 (Paris, 1995), pp.234-49; H.W. Ehrmann, Organized Business in France (Princeton, 1957), pp.77-90; for the steel industry P. Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.514-39 and 762-83.
89. Kuisel, Capitalism, pp.132-44; P. Burrin, La France à l'heure allemande 1940-1944 (Paris, 1995), pp.234-49; H.W. Ehrmann, Organized Business in France (Princeton, 1957), pp.77-90; for the steel industry P. Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.514-39 and 762-83.
90. Kuisel, Capitalism, pp.132-44; P. Burrin, La France à l'heure allemande 1940-1944 (Paris, 1995), pp.234-49; H.W. Ehrmann, Organized Business in France (Princeton, 1957), pp.77-90; for the steel industry P. Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.514-39 and 762-83.
91. P. Mioche, Jacques Ferry et la sidérurgie française depuis la seconde guerre mondiale (Aix-en-Provence, 1993), pp.26-9.
92. J.-P. Daviet, 'Some Features of Concentration in France', in H. Pohl (ed.), The Concentration Process in the Entrepreneurial Economy since the Late 19th Century (Stuttgart, 1988), pp.80-81 and 85-7; M. Freyssenet and C. Omnès, La crise de la sidérurgie française (Paris, 1984), pp.31-8; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.593-6.
93. J.-P. Daviet, 'Some Features of Concentration in France', in H. Pohl (ed.), The Concentration Process in the Entrepreneurial Economy since the Late 19th Century (Stuttgart, 1988), pp.80-81 and 85-7; M. Freyssenet and C. Omnès, La crise de la sidérurgie française (Paris, 1984), pp.31-8; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.593-6.
94. J.-P. Daviet, 'Some Features of Concentration in France', in H. Pohl (ed.), The Concentration Process in the Entrepreneurial Economy since the Late 19th Century (Stuttgart, 1988), pp.80-81 and 85-7; M. Freyssenet and C. Omnès, La crise de la sidérurgie française (Paris, 1984), pp.31-8; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.593-6.
95. E. Godelier, 'De la stratégie locale à la stratégie globale: la formation d'une identité de groupe chez Usinor (1948-1986)' (thèse de doctorat, EHESS, Paris, 1995).
96. Hardy-Hémery, De la croissance, p.355.
97. Kipping, 'Competing for Dollars', pp.230-1 with additional references.
98. P. Mioche, Le Plan Monnet (Paris, 1987), pp.249-58; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.590-609.
99. P. Mioche, Le Plan Monnet (Paris, 1987), pp.249-58; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.590-609.
100. Respectively Martin, Patron de droit divin, p.52 and P. Mioche and J. Roux, Henri Malcor. Un héritier des maîtres de forges (Paris, 1988), p.188.
101. Respectively Martin, Patron de droit divin, p.52 and P. Mioche and J. Roux, Henri Malcor. Un héritier des maîtres de forges (Paris, 1988), p.188.
102. Godelier, thesis, esp. pp. 108-14.
103. Hehrmann, Organized Business, pp.109-13.
104. Sallot, Le contrôle des prix, pp. 119-42; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.232 and 238-47.
105. Sallot, Le contrôle des prix, pp. 119-42; Mioche, La sidérurgie, pp.232 and 238-47.
106. Mioche, Jacques Ferry, p.85.
107. M. Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen und Konkurrenz. Der Schuman-Plan und die Ursprünge der europäischen Einigung, 1944-1952 (Berlin, 1995), pp. 197-203.
108. For the following, Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen, pp.44-7 and 'Competingfor Dollars', pp.231-3.
109. For the following, Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen, pp.44-7 and 'Competingfor Dollars', pp.231-3.
110. Martin, Patron de droit divin, p.53.
111. Letter to the Minister of Industry and the Minister of Economic Affairs, 15 March 1947, quoted in Kipping, Zwischen Karlellen, p.46.
112. For this and the following Kipping, 'Les tôles avant les casseroles', pp.75-9 and in detail Zwischen Kartellen, pp.86-104.
113. For this and the following Kipping, 'Les tôles avant les casseroles', pp.75-9 and in detail Zwischen Kartellen, pp.86-104.
114. It also responded to the US pressure for an inclusion of the Federal Republic into the Western bloc. For details and a summary of the relevant research see Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen, pp.113-18.
115. There are some indications that Monnet initially envisaged the High Authority with tasks comparable to the US Federal Trade Commision. Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen, p.219.
116. Kipping, Zwischen Karlellen, esp. pp.273-6. Monnet actually used this argument during the ratification debate in France (ibid., p.287).
117. Kipping, Zwischen Karlellen, esp. pp.273-6. Monnet actually used this argument during the ratification debate in France (ibid., p.287).
118. Discussions about French anti-trust legislation had begun in 1948. Strict measures were supported by the steel users and Monnet's Planning Agency and opposed by the CNPF and the CSSF. For details, see M. Kipping, 'Concurrence et compétitivité. Les origines de la législation anti-trust française après 1945', Etudes et Documents, Vol.VI (1994), pp.429-55.
119. J. Constant, 'Ce que demande le consommateur'. Hommes et Commerce (Jan.-Feb. 1955), p.78, quoted by E.B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, 2nd edn. 1968), p.183.
120. J. Constant, 'Ce que demande le consommateur'. Hommes et Commerce (Jan.-Feb. 1955), p.78, quoted by E.B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, 2nd edn. 1968), p.183.
121. For details see Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen, pp.335.
122. D. Spierenburg and R. Poidevin, Histoire de la Haute Autorité de la Communauté Européenne du Charbon et de l'Acier (Brussels, 1993). See for coal also R. Perron, Le marché du charbon, un enjeu dans les relations Europe/Etats-Unis de 1945 à 1958 (Paris, forthcoming).
123. D. Spierenburg and R. Poidevin, Histoire de la Haute Autorité de la Communauté Européenne du Charbon et de l'Acier (Brussels, 1993). See for coal also R. Perron, Le marché du charbon, un enjeu dans les relations Europe/Etats-Unis de 1945 à 1958 (Paris, forthcoming).
124. Mioche, Jacques Ferry, pp. 138-9.
125. Sallot, Le contrôle des prix, pp.209-73.
126. Mioche, Jacques Ferry, pp.82 and 89.
127. Haas, Uniting of Europe, pp. 182-4.
128. Mioche, Jacques Ferry, p. 180.
129. Freyssenet and Omnès, La crise, pp.55-9.
130. Kipping,'Confrontational Model', p.239.
131. This merger had proved to be extremely difficult due to an open conflict between the de Wendel family and Pont-à-Mousson: Freyssenet and Omnès, La crise, pp.38-43.
132. Godelier, thesis, pp.323-7.
133. For this and the following, see ibid., pp.330-54 and 370-72.
134. For the period up to 1960 in general, see Lammert, Das Verhältnis, pp.137-241.
135. Meeting of the Trade Association's directorate on 10 June 1948, minutes, archives of the WV Stahl, Düsseldorf.
136. Kipping, 'Competing for Dollars', pp.235-8.
137. For details and the relevant literature, see Kipping, Zwischen Kartellen, pp.115-17 and 250-54.
138. G. Herrigel, 'Rebuilding Ruhr Steel 1945-1960: Rethinking Narratives of Continuity and Discontinuity', Business and Economic History, Vol.24 No.1 (Fall, 1995) emphasises the role of deconcentration and American production ideology, but seems to under-estimate the impact of the ECSC and German cartel legislation as well as the pressure from the users.
139. For the Mannesmann-Thyssen swap, see also H.A. Wessel, Kontinuität im Wandel. 100 Jahre Mannesmann, 1890-1990 (Düsseldorf, 1990), pp.401-11 and 503-10.
140. D.J. Neven and J. Vickers, 'Public Policy Towards Industrial Restructuring', in K. Cool et al. (eds.), European Industrial Restructuring in the 1990s (Basingstoke, 1992), pp.169-79, especially Table 7.7.
141. Conversation with Pierre Mounier-Kuhn, who is studying the history of Bull.
142. See, for a summary of some of the relevant research, P. Fridenson, 'Les patronats allemand et français au XXème siècle. Essai de comparaison', in R. Hudemann and G.-H. Soutou (eds.), Elites en France et en Allemagne aux XIXème et XXème siècles, Vol.1 (Munich, 1994), pp. 165-7.