Culicoides variipennis and bluetongue-virus epidemiology in the United States

Annual Review of Entomology

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 23-43

  Tabachnick, Walter J ^a  

^a USDA ARS   (United States)

Author keywords

Arbovirus; Livestock; Population genetics; Vector capacity; Vector competence

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; ARBOVIRUS; ARTHROPODA; BLUETONGUE VIRUS; BOVIDAE; CULICOIDES VARIIPENNIS; OVIS ARIES; CERATO POGONIDAE; DIPTERA;

BLUETONGUE VIRUS; EPIDEMIOLOGY;

USA;

ANIMAL; BLUETONGUE ORBIVIRUS; CERATOPOGONIDAE; DISEASE CARRIER; REVIEW; SHEEP DISEASE; UNITED STATES; VIROLOGY;

ANIMALS; BLUETONGUE; BLUETONGUE VIRUS; CERATOPOGONIDAE; INSECT VECTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0029749633     PISSN: 00664170     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.41.010196.000323     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Akey DH, Potter HW. 1979. Pigmentation associated with oogenesis in the biting fly Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae): determination of parity. J. Med. Entomol. 16:67-70
2. Ballinger ME, Jones RH, Beaty BJ. 1987. The comparative virogenesis of three serotypes of bluetongue virus in Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). J. Med. Entomol. 24:61-65
3. Barber TL. 1979. Temporal appearance, geographic distribution and species of origin of bluetongue virus serotypes in the United States. Am. J. Vet. Res. 40: 1654-56
4. Barber TL, Jochim MM, eds. 1985. Bluetongue and Related Orbiviruses. New York: Liss
5. Barnard DR, Jones RH. 1980. Culicoides variipennis: seasonal abundance, overwintering, and voltinism in northeastern Colorado. Environ. Entomol. 9: 709-12
6. Barnard DR, Jones RH. 1980. Diel and seasonal patterns of flight activity of Ceratopogonidae in northeastern Colorado. Environ. Entomol. 9:446-51
7. Boorman J, Mellor PS, Penn M, Jennings M. 1975. The growth of African Horse Sickness in embryonated hen eggs and the transmission by Culicoides variipennis Coquillet (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae). Arch. Virol. 47:343-49
8. Bowne JG, Jones RH. 1966. Observations on bluetongue virus in the salivary glands of an insect vector, Culicoides variipennis. Virology 30:127-33
9. Chamberlain RW, Sudia WD. 1961. Mechanism of transmission of viruses by mosquitoes. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 6: 371-90
10. Chandler LJ, Ballinger ME, Jones RH, Beaty BJ. 1985. The virogenesis of bluetongue virus in Culicoides variipennis. See Ref. 4, pp. 245-53
11. DeFoliart GR, Grimstad PR, Watts DM. 1987. Advances in mosquito-borne arbovirus/vector research. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 32:479-505
12. Downes JA. 1978. Culicoides variipennis complex: a necessary re-alignment of nomenclature (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). J. Med. Entomol. 12: 379:63-69
13. Dulac GC, Dubuc C, Myers DJ, Taylor EA, Ward D, Sterritt WG. 1989. Incursion of bluetongue virus type 11 and epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer type 2 for two consecutive years in the Okanagan Valley. Can. Vet. J. 30:351-54
14. Dulac GC, Sterritt WG, Dubuc C, Afshar A, Myers EA, et al. 1992. Incursions of orbiviruses in Canada and their serologic monitoring in the native animal population between 1962 and 1991. See Ref. 129, pp. 120-27
15. Dutoit R. 1944. The transmission of bluetongue and horse-sickness by Culicoides. Onderstepoort. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Ind 19:7-16
16. Dyce AL. 1969. The recognition of nulliparous and parous Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) without dissection. J. Aust. Entomol. Soc. 8:11-15
17. Eaton BT, Hyatt AD, Brookes SM. 1990. The replication of bluetongue virus. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 162:89-118
18. Erasmus BJ. 1975. Bluetongue in sheep and goats. Aust. Vet. J. 51:165-70
19. Foster NM, Beckon RD, Luedke AJ, Jones RH, Metcalf HE. 1977. Transmission of two strains of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus in deer by Culicoides variipennis. J. Wildl. Dis. 13:9-16
20. Foster NM, Jones RH. 1973. Bluetongue virus transmission with Culicoides variipennis via embryonated chicken eggs. J. Med. Entomol. 10:529-32
21. Foster NM, Jones RH. 1979. Multiplication rate of bluetongue virus in the vector Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) infected orally. J. Med. Entomol. 15:302-3
22. Foster NM, Jones RH, Luedke AJ. 1968. Transmission of attenuated and virulent bluetongue virus with Culicoides variipennis infected orally via sheep. Am. J. Vet. Res. 29:275-79
23. Foster NM, Jones RH, McCrory BR. 1963. Preliminary investigations on insect transmission of bluetongue virus in sheep. Am. J. Vet. Res. 24:1195-200
24. Gibbs EPJ. 1983. Bluetongue - an analysis of current problems, with particular reference to importation of ruminants to the United States. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 182:1190-94
25. Gibbs EPJ, Greiner EC. 1988. Bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease. In The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, ed. TP Monath, pp. 39-70. Boca Raton: CRC
26. Gibbs EPJ, Greiner EC, Taylor WP, Barber TL, House JA, Pearson JE. 1983. Isolation of bluetongue serotype 2 from cattle in Florida: a serotype of bluetongue virus hitherto unrecognized in the western hemisphere. Am. J. Vet. Res. 44:2226-28
27. Gorman BM. 1990. The bluetongue viruses. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 162:1-19
28. Gorman BM. 1992. An overview of the orbiviruses. See Ref. 129, pp. 335-47
29. Gould AR, McColl KA, Pritchard LI. 1992. Phylogenetic relationships between bluetongue viruses and other orbiviruses. See Ref. 129, pp. 452-60
30. Gould AR, Pritchard LI. 1990. Relationships amongst bluetongue viruses revealed by comparisons of capsid and outer protein coat nucleotide sequences. Virus Res. 17:31-39
31. Greiner EC, Barber TL, Pearson JE, Kramer WL, Gibbs EPJ. 1985. Orbiviruses from Culicoides in Florida. See Ref. 4, pp. 195-200
32. Hardy JL, Houk EJ, Kramer LD, Reeves WC. 1983. Intrinsic factors affecting vector competence of mosquitoes for arboviruses. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 28: 229-62
33. Hardy WT, Price DA. 1952. Soremuzzle of sheep. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 120: 23-25
34. Hassan H. 1992. Status of bluetongue in the Middle East and Asia. See 129, pp. 38-41
35. Hensleigh DA, Atchley WR. 1977. Morphometric variability in natural and laboratory populations of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). J. Med. Entomol. 14:379-86
36. Holbrook FR, Tabachnick WJ. 1995. The Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in California. J. Med. Entomol. In press
37. Holbrook FR, Tabachnick WJ, Brady RC. 1995. The Culicoides variipennis complex (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in the six New England States. Vet. Med. Entomol. In press
38. Huismans H, van Dijk AA. 1990. Bluetongue virus structural components. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 162:21-42
39. Hutcheon D. 1902. Malarial catarrhal fever of sheep. Vet. Rec. 14:629-33
40. Jeggo MH, Gumm ID, Taylor WP. 1985. Clinical and serological response of sheep to serial challenge with different bluetongue serotypes. Res. Vet. Sci. 34: 205-11
41. Jennings DM, Mellor PS. 1987. Variation in the responses of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) to oral infection with bluetongue virus. Arch. Virol. 95:107-82
42. Jennings DM, Mellor PS. 1989. Culicoides: biological vectors of Akabane virus. Vet. Microbiol. 21:125-31
43. Jennings DM, Mellor PS. 1988. The vector potential of British Culicoides species for bluetongue virus. Vet. Microbiol. 17:1-10
44. Johnson BG. 1992. An overview and perspective on orbivirus disease prevalence and occurrence of vectors in North America. See Ref. 129, pp. 58-64
45. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1966. The transmission of bluetongue virus to embryonated chicken eggs by Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) infected by intrathoracic inoculation. Mosq. News 26:185-89
46. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1971. The effect of repeated blood meals infective for bluetongue on the infection rate of Culicoides variipennis. J. Med. Entomol. 8:499-501
47. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1971. Transovarial transmission of bluetongue virus unlikely for Culicoides variipennis. Mosq. News 31:434-37
48. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1974. Oral infection of Culicoides variipennis with bluetongue virus: development of susceptible and resistant lines from a colony population. J. Med. Entomol. 11:316-23
49. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1978. Relevance of laboratory colonies of the vector in arbovirus research - Culicoides variipennis and bluetongue. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 27:168-77
50. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1978. Heterogeneity of Culicoides variipennis field populations to oral infection with bluetongue virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 27:178-83
51. Jones RH, Foster NM. 1979. Culicoides variipennis: threshold to infection for bluetongue virus. Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp. 54:250
52. Jones RH, Roughton RD, Foster NM, Bando BM. 1977. Culicoides, the vector of epizootic hemorrhagic disease in white-tailed deer in Kentucky in 1971. J. Wildl. Dis. 13:2-8
53. Jones RH, Schmidtmann ET, Foster NM. 1983. Vector competence studies for bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease viruses with Culicoides venustus (Ceratopogonidae). Mosq. News 26:185-89
54. Jorgensen NM. 1979. The systematics, occurrence and host preference of Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in southeastern Washington. Melandria 3: 1-47
55. Kline DL, Greiner EC. 1992. Field observations on the ecology of adult and immature stages of Culicoides spp. associated with livestock in Florida USA. See Ref. 129, pp. 297-305
56. Lillie TH, Marquardt WC, Jones RH. 1981. The flight range of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Can. Entomol. 113:419-26
57. Linhares AX, Anderson JR. 1990. The influence of temperature and moonlight on flight activity of Culicoides variipennis (Coquillet) (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)) in northern California. Pan-Pac. Entomol. 66:199-207
58. Lopez JW, Dubovi EJ, Cupp EW, Lein DH. 1992. An examination of the bluetongue virus status of New York State. See Ref. 129, pp. 140-46
59. Loudon PT, Liu HM, Roy P. 1992. Genes to complex structures of bluetongue viruses: structure-function relationships of bluetongue virus proteins. See Ref. 129, pp. 383-89
60. Luedke AJ, Jones RH, Jochim MM. 1967. Transmission of bluetongue between sheep and cattle by Culicoides variipennis. Am. J. Vet. Res. 28:457-60
61. Luedke AJ, Jones RH, Jochim MM. 1976. Serial cyclic transmission of bluetongue virus in sheep and Culicoides variipennis. Cornell Vet. 66:536-50
62. MacLachlan NJ, Barratt-Boyes SM, Brewer AW, Stott JL. 1992. Bluetongue virus infection of cattle. See Ref. 129, pp. 723-36
63. MacLachlan NJ, Nunamaker RA, Katz JB, Sawyer MM, Akita GY, et al. 1994. Detection of bluetongue virus in the blood of inoculated calves: comparison of virus isolation, PCR assay, and in vitro feeding of Culicoides. Arch. Virol. 136:1-8
64. McKercher DG, McGowan B, Howarth JA, Saito JK. 1953. A preliminary report on the isolation and identification of the bluetongue virus from sheep in California. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 122:300-1
65. McMullen BA. 1978. Culicoides (Diptera Ceratopogonidae) of the south Okanagan area of British Columbia. Can. Entomol. 110:1053-57
66. Mecham JO, Dean VC, Wigington JG, Nunamaker RA. 1990. Detection of bluetongue virus in Culicoides variipennis by an antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay. J. Med. Entomol. 27:602-6
67. Mecham JO, Nunamaker RA. 1994. Complex interactions between vectors and pathogens: Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) with bluetongue virus. J. Med. Entomol. 31:903-7
68. Mellor PS. 1990. The replication of bluetongue virus in Culicoides vectors. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 162: 143-61
69. Mellor PS. 1993. Culicoides: Do vectors respect national boundaries? Br. Vet. J. 149:5-8
70. Mellor PS, Boned J, Hamblin C, Graham S. 1990. Isolations of African horse sickness virus from insects made during the 1988 epizootic in Spain. Epidemiol. Infect. 105:447-54
71. Mertens PPC, Burroughs JN, Anderson J. 1987. Purification and properties of virus particles, infectious sub-viral particles, and cores of bluetongue virus serotypes 1 and 4. Virology 157:375-86
72. Metcalf HE, Pearson JE, Klingsporn AL. 1981. Bluetongue in cattle: a serologie survey of slaughter cattle in the United States. Am. J. Vet. Res. 44:1057-61
73. Mitchell CJ. 1983. Mosquito vector competence and arboviruses. Curr. Top. Vector Res. 1:63-92
74. Mullen GR, Jones RH, Bravernan Y, Nusbaum KE. 1985. Laboratory infections of Culicoides debilipalpis and C. stellifer (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) with bluetongue virus. See Ref. 4, pp. 239-43
75. Mullens BA. 1985. Age-related activity and sugar feeding by Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in southern California. J. Med. Entomol. 22:32-37
76. Mullens BA. 1989. A quantitative survey of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in dairy wastewater ponds in southern California. J. Med. Entomol. 26:559-65
77. Mullens BA. 1992. Integrated management of Culicoides variipennis: a problem of applied ecology. See Ref. 129, pp. 896-905
78. Mullens BA, Dada CE. 1992. Spatial and seasonal distribution of potential vectors of hemorrhagic disease viruses to peninsular bighorn sheep in the Santa Rosa mountains of southern California. J. Wildl. Dis. 28:192-205
79. Mullens BA, Holbrook FR. 1991. Temperature effects on the gonotrophic cycle of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 7:588-91
80. Mullens BA, Rutz DA. 1984. Age structure and survivorship of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in central New York State, USA. J. Med. Entomol. 21:194-203
81. Mullens BA, Schmidtmann ET. 1982. The gonotrophic cycle of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and its implications in age-grading field populations in New York State. J. Med. Entomol. 19:340-49
82. Mullens BA, Tabachnick WJ, Holbrook FR, Thompson LH. 1995. Effects of temperature on virogenesis of bluetongue virus serotype 11 in Culicoides variipennis sonorensis. Vet. Med. Entomol. 9:71-76
83. Nelson RL, Scrivani RP. 1972. Isolations of arboviruses from parous midges of the Culicoides variipennis complex, and parous rates in biting populations. J. Med. Entomol. 9:277-81
84. Nichol ST, Rowe JE, Fitch WM. 1993. Punctuated equilibrium and positive Darwinian evolution in vesicular stomatitis virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:10424-28
85. Nunamaker RA, Mecham JO. 1989. Immunodetection of bluetongue virus and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus in Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). J. Med. Entomol. 26:256-59
86. Nunamaker RA, Sieburth PJ, Dean VC, Wigington JG, Nunamaker CE, Mecham JO. 1990. Absence of transovarial transmission of bluetongue virus in Culicoides variipennis: immunogold labelling of bluetongue virus antigen in developing oocytes from Culicoides variipennis (Coquillett). Comp. Biochem. Physiol Ser. A 96:19-31
87. Nunamaker RA, Wick BC, Nunamaker CE. 1988. Immunogold labelling of bluetongue virus in cryosections from Culicoides variipennis (Coquillett) salivary gland. Proc. Anna. Meet. Electr. Microsc. Soc. Am., 46th, pp. 372-73
88. Osburn BI. 1985. Economics of bluetongue in the United States. Proc. Symp. Arbovirus Res. Australia, 4th, p. 245. Brisbane: CSIRO
89. Parsonson IM. 1990. Pathology and pathogenesis of bluetongue infections. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 162: 119-42
90. Parsonson IM. 1992. Overview of bluetongue virus infection in sheep. See Ref. 129, pp. 13-24
91. Parsonson IM. 1992. Vertical transmission of the orbiviruses. See Ref. 129, pp. 996-1000
92. Parsonson IM. 1993. Bluetongue virus infection of cattle. Proc. US Anim. Health Assoc. 97:120-25
93. Pearson JE, Gustafson GA, Shafer AL, Alstad AD. 1992. Distribution of bluetongue in the United States. See Ref. 129, pp. 128-39
94. Price DA, Hardy WT. 1954 Isolation of the bluetongue virus from Texas sheep: Culicoides shown to be a vector. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 121:255
95. Pritchard LI, Gould AR, Mertens PPC, Wilson WC, Thompson LH. 1994. Complete nucleotide sequence of bluetongue virus serotype 2 RNA segment 3 (Ona-A). Phylogenetic analyses reveal the probable origins of this virus. Virus Res. 35:247-61
96. Raich T, Archer JL, Robertson MA, Tabachnick WJ, Beaty BJ. 1993. Polymerase chain reaction approaches to Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) identification. J. Med. Entomol. 30:228-32
97. Rawlings P. 1993. Bluetongue virus vectors: a European perspective. Proc. Soc. Vet. Epidemiol. Prev. Med. pp. 134-44
98. Reeves WC. 1990. Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in California, 1943-1987. Sacramento, CA: Calif. Mosq. Vector Control Assoc.
99. Robertson MA, Tabachnick WJ. 1992. Molecular genetic approaches Culicoides variipennis vector competence for bluetongue virus. See Ref. 129, pp. 271-77
100. Roy P. 1989. Bluetongue virus genetics and genome structure. Virus Res. 13: 179-206
101. Roy P. 1992. Bluetongue virus proteins. J. Gen. Virol. 73:3051-64
102. Roy P, Marshall JA, French TJ. 1990. Structure of the bluetongue virus genome and its encoded proteins. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 162:43-88
103. Samal SK, El Hussein A, Holbrook FR, Beaty BJ, Ramig RF. 1987. Mixed infection of Culicoides variipennis with bluetongue virus serotypes 10 and 17: evidence for high frequency of reassortment in the vector. J. Gen. Virol. 68: 2319-29
104. Schmidtmann FT, Mullens BA, Schwager SJ, Spear S. 1983. Distribution, abundance, and a probability model for Culicoides variipennis on dairy farms in New York State. Environ. Entomol. 12:768-73
105. Sellers RF. 1992. Weather, Culicoides, and the distribution and spread of bluetongue and African horse sickness viruses. See Ref. 129, pp. 284-90
106. Sellers RF, Maaroof AR. 1989. Trajectory analysis and bluetongue virus serotype 2 in Florida 1982. Can. J. Vet. Res. 53:100-202
107. Sellers RF, Maaroof AR. 1991. Possible introduction of epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer virus (serotype 2) and bluelongue virus (serotype 11) into British Columbia in 1987 and 1988 by infected Culicoides carried on the wind Can. J. Vet. Res. 55:367-70
108. Sieburth PJ, Nunamaker CE, Ellis J, Nunamaker RA. 1991. Infection of the midgut of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) with bluetongue virus. J. Med EntomoL 2:74-85
109. Spreull J. 1905. Malarial catarrhal fever (bluetongue) of sheep in South Africa. J. Comp. Pathol. Ther. 18:321-37
110. St George TD. 1992. Occupation of an ecological niche in the Pacific Ocean countries by bluetongue and related viruses. See Ref. 129, pp. 76-84
111. Standfast HA, Muller MJ. 1989. Bluetongue in Australia - an entomologist's view. Aust. Vet. J. 66:396-97
112. Standfast HA, Muller MJ, Dyce AL. 1992. An overview of bluetongue virus vector biology and ecology in the Oriental and Australasian regions of the western Pacific. See Ref. 129, pp. 253-61
113. Sterritt WG, Dulac GC. 1992. Evolving perceptions of bluetongue: a challenge for government and industry. Can. Vet. J. 33:109-1 1
114. Stott JL, Osburn BI, Bushnell R, Loomis KRE Squire. 1985. Epizootiological study of bluetongue virus infection in California livestock: an overview. See Ref. 4, pp. 571-82
115. Tabachnick WJ. 1990. Genetic variation in laboratory and field populations of the vector of bluetongue disease, Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). J. Med Entomol. 27:24-30
116. Tabachnick WJ. 1991. Genetic control of oral susceptibility to infection of Culicoides variipennis for bluetongue virus. Am. J. Trop. Med Hyg. 45:666-71
117. Tabachnick WJ. 1992. Microgeographic and temporal patterns of genetic variation in natural populations of Culicoides variipennis. J. Med. Entomol. 29:384-95
118. Tabachnick WJ. 1992. Genetic differentiation among North American populations of Culicoides variipennis. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 85:140-47
119. Tabachnick WJ. 1992. Genetics, population genetics, and evolution of Culicoides variipennis: implications for bluetongue virus transmission in the USA and its international impact. See Ref. 129, pp. 262-70
120. Tabachnick WJ. 1994. The role of genetics in understanding insect vector competence for arboviruses. Adv. Dis. Vector Res. 10:93-108
121. Tabachnick WJ, Holbrook FR. 1992. The Culicoides variipennis complex and the distribution of the bluetongue viruses in the United States. Proc. US Anim. Health Assoc. 96:207-12
122. Tabachnick WJ, MacLachlan NJ, Thompson LH, Hunt GJ, Patton JF. 1995. Infection of Culicoides variipennis using PCR detectable bluetongue virus in cattle blood. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. Submitted
123. Tabachnick WJ, Mellor PS, Standfast HA. 1992. Recommendations for research on Culicoides vector biology. See Ref. 129, pp. 977-81
124. Tanya VN, Greiner EC, Gibbs EPJ. 1992. Evaluation of Culicoides insignis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) as a vector of bluetongue virus. Vet. Microbiol. 32: 1-14
125. Tanya VN, Greiner EC, Shroyer DA, Gibbs EP. 1993. Vector competence parameters of Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) for bluetongue virus serotype 2. J. Med. Entomol. 30:204-8
126. Taylor WP. 1986. The epidemiology of bluetongue. Rev. Sci. Technol. Off. Int. Epizoot. 5:351-56
127. Thompson LH, Mo CL, Oviedo MT, Homan EI, Interamerican Bluetongue Team, 1992. Prevalence and incidence of bluetongue viruses in the Caribbean Basin: serologic and virologie findings. See Ref. 129, pp. 106-13
128. Uren MF, St George TD. 1985. The clinical susceptibility of sheep to four Australian serotypes of bluetongue virus. Aust. Vet. J. 62:175-76
129. Wallon TE, Osburn BI, eds. 1992. Bluetongue, African Horsesickness and Related Orbiviruses. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
130. Walton TE, Tabachnick WJ, Thompson LH, Holbrook FR. 1992. An entomologic and epidemiologic perspective for bluetongue regulatory changes for livestock movement from the United States and observations on bluetongue in the Caribbean Basin. See Ref. 129, pp. 952-60
131. Wieser-Schimpf L, Wilson WC, French DD, Baham A, Foil LD. 1993. Bluetongue virus in sheep and cattle and Culicoides variipennis and C. stellifer (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Louisiana. J. Med. Entomol. 30:719-24
132. Wirth WW, Jones RH. 1957. The North American subspecies of Culicoides variipennis Diptera (Heleidae). US Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull. 1170:1-35
133. Wirth WW, Morris C. 1985. The taxonomic complex, Culicoides variipennis. See Ref. 4, pp. 165-75
134. Work TM, Sawyer MM, Jessup DA, Washino RK, Osburn BI. 1990. Effects of anesthetization and storage temperature on bluetongue virus recovery from Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and sheep blood. J. Med. Entomol. 27:331-33
135. Wright JC, Getz RR, Powe TA, Nusbaum KE, Stringfellow DA, et al. 1993. Model based on weather variables to predict seroconversion to bluetongue virus in Alabama cattle. Prev. Vet. Med. 16:217-78