Human insulin: Basic sciences to therapeutic uses

Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy

Volumn 22, Issue 8, 1996, Pages 753-789

  Chien, Yie W ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BOVINE INSULIN; HUMAN INSULIN; INSULIN; INSULIN ZINC SUSPENSION; PIG INSULIN; RECOMBINANT HUMAN INSULIN;

DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG MANUFACTURE; DRUG STABILITY; DRUG STRUCTURE; DRUG SYNTHESIS; DRUG USE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HISTORY; HUMAN; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; REVIEW; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION;

EID: 0029740605     PISSN: 03639045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/03639049609065908     Document Type: Review

References (358)

1. K. M. West, Epidemiology of Diabetes and Its Vascular Lesions, Elsevier, New York, 1978, pp. 127-158, 289-321.
2. J. E. Baer, Estimates of Insulin Supplies, Office of Planning and Evaluation Study 39, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC, 1977.
3. The National Diabetes Advisory Board, A Study of Insulin Supply and Demand, Publication 78-1588, National Institutes of Health, Washington, DC, 1978.
4. Cowley, London Med. J., 1788.
5. J. V. Mering and O. Minkowski, Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch. Exp. Pathol. Pharmakol., 26, 371 (1890).
6. Schulze, Arch. F. Microskop. Anat. U. Entweck-lungsmech, 56, 1900.
7. Ssobolew, Zentralblatt Pathol., 11, 202 (1900).
8. de Meyer, Arch, di Fisiol., 7, 96 (1909).
9. G. E. Bauer and A. Lazarow, Biol. Bull., 121, 425 (1961).
10. R. E. Humbel, Biochim. Biophysica Acta, 74, 96 (1963).
11. A. Lazarow, G. E. Bauer, and A. W. Lindall, The Structure and Metabolism of Pancreatic Islets, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1964, p. 203.
12. G. H. Smith, K. W. Taylor, and D. G. Parry, Nature (London), 203, 1144 (1964).
13. R. E. Humbel and A. E. Renold, Biochim. Biophysica. Acta, 74, 84 (1963).
14. H. H. Tomizawa and Y. D. Halsey, J. Biol. Chem., 234, 307 (1959).
15. H. H. Tomizawa, J. Biol. Chem., 237, 428 (1962).
16. H. M. Katzen and D. Stetten, Jr., Diabetes, 11, 271 (1962).
17. A. W. Lindall, Jr., G. E. Bauer, P. K. Dixit, and A. Lazarow, Cell Biol., 19, 317 (1963).
18. G. Weitzel, F.-J. Strecker, U. Roester, A.-M. Fretz-dorff, and E. Buddecke, Hoppe-Seylers Z. Physiol. Chem., 295, 83 (1953).
19. H. Maske, K. Munk, J. D. H. Homann, J. Bouman, and R. Matthijsen, Z. Naturforsch., 11b, 407 (1956).
20. J. R. Williamson, P. E. Lacy, and J. W. Grisham, Diabetes, 10, 460 (1961).
21. G. E. Palade, P. Siekevitz, and L. G. Caro, in Ciba Found. Symp.: The Exocrine Pancreas, Churchill, London, 1962, p. 23.
22. P. P. Foa, in Ciba Found. Coll.: Endocrinology, Churchill, London, 1956, p. 55.
23. G. M. Grodsky, A. A. Batts, L. L. Bennett, C. Vcella, N. B. McWilliams, and D. S. Smith, Am. J. Physiol., 205, 638 (1963).
24. H. G. Coore and P. J. Randle, Biochem. J., 93, 66 (1964).
25. H. Frerichs, U. Reich, and W. Creutzfeldt, Clin. Wochenschr., 43, 136 (1965).
26. R. Levine and M. S. Goldstein, Recent Progr. Hormone Res., 11, 343 (1955).
27. R. Levine, in The Nature and Treatment of Diabetes (B. S. Leibel and G. A. Wrenshall, eds.,), Excerpta Medica Found., Amsterdam, 1965, p. 250.
28. R. Levine, Israel J. Med. Sci., 1, 1249 (1965).
29. D. M. Kipnis and M. W. Noall, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 28, 226 (1958).
30. K. L. Manchester and M. E. Krahl, Nature (London), 183, 1399 (1959).
31. K. L. Zierler, Am. J. Physiol., 198, 1066 (1960).
32. M. Rodbell, J. Biol. Chem., 241, 130 (1966).
33. I. G. Wool and M. E. Krahl, Am. J. Physiol., 196, 961 (1959).
34. J. Larner, M. Rosell-Perez, D. L. Friedman, and J. W. Craig, in Ciba Found. Coll.: Control of Glycogen Metabolism, Churchill, London, 1964, p. 273.
35. G. E. Mortimore and F. Tietze, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 82, 329 (1959).
36. E. Samols and J. A. Ryder, J. Clin. Invest., 40, 2092 (1961).
37. S. A. Berson, R. S. Yalow, A. Bauman, M. A. Rothschild, and K. Newerly, J. Clin. Invest., 35, 170 (1956).
38. H. T. Narahara and R. H. Williams, J. Biol. Chem., 234, 71 (1959).
39. O. B. Kotoulas, G. R. Morrison, and L. Recant, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 97, 350 (1965).
40. H. M. Katzen, F. Tietze, and D. W. Stetten, Jr., J. Biol. Chem., 238, 1006 (1963).
41. P. T. Varandani and H. H. Tomizawa, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 113, 498 (1966).
42. H. N. Tomizawa, M. L. Nutley, H. T. Narahara, and R. H. Williams, J. Biol. Chem., 214, 285 (1955).
43. S. A. Berson, R. S. Yalow, and B. W. Volk, B. W., J. Lab. Clin. Med., 49, 331 (1957).
44. U. J. Lewis and E. H. Thiele, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 79, 755 (1957).
45. R. Schucher, Can. J. Biochem., 43, 1143 (1965).
46. E. U. Piazza, C. J. Goodner, and N. Freinkel, Diabetes, 8, 459 (1959).
47. D. Rudman, L. A. Garcia, M. Di Girolamo, and P. W. Shank, Endocrinology, 78, 169, 1966.
48. C. H. Best, Epochs in the history of diabetes, in Diabetes (R. H. Williams, ed.), Hoeber, New York, 1960.
49. F. G. Banting and C. H. Best, The internal secretion of the pancreas, J. Lab. Clin. Med., 7, 251 (1922).
50. H. Klostermeyer and R. E. Humbel, The chemistry and biochemistry of insulin, Angew Chem. Intl. Ed., 5, 807 (1966).
51. J. A. Galloway, Chemistry and clinical use of insulin, in Diabetes Mellitus, (J. A. Galloway, J. H. Potvin, and C. R. Shuman, eds.) Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis, IN, 1988, pp. 106-137.
52. M. Bliss, The Discovery of Insulin, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1982.
53. M. Bliss, Banting: A Biography, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1984.
54. J. G. L. Jackson, Insulin 1922-82, Intl. Diabetes Fed. Bull., 1982, pp. 9-15.
55. E. L. Scott, Am. J. Physiol., 29, 306 (1911/12).
56. J. J. Abel, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 12, 132 (1926).
57. A. P. Ryle, F. Sanger, L. F. Smith, and R. Kitai, Biochem. J., 60, 541 (1955).
58. J. Meienhofer, E. Schnabel, N. Bremer, O. Brinkhoff, R. Zabel, W. Stroka, H. Klostermeyer, D. Brandenburg, T. Okuda, and H. Zahn, Z. Naturforsch., 18b, 1120 (1963).
59. P. G. Katsoyannis, A. Tometsko, and K. Fukuda, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85, 2863 (1963).
60. P. G. Katsoyannis, K. Fukuda, A. Tometsko, K. Suzuki, and M. Tilak, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 86, 930 (1964).
61. G. H. Dixon, Excerpta Medica Int. Congr. Ser., 83, 1207 (1964).
62. C. W. Pettinga, Biochem. Prep., 6, 28 (1958).
63. J. B. Collip, J. Biol. Chem., 55, xl (1923).
64. M. Somogyi, E. A. Doisy, and P. A. Shaffer, J. Biol. Chem., 60, 31 (1924).
65. E. Jorpes, V. Mutt, and S. Rastgeldi, Acta Chem. (Scand.), 14, 1777 (1960).
66. B. Werner, Acta Paediat. (Uppsala), 35(suppl.), 6 (1948).
67. R. E. Humbel and A. M. Crestfield, Biochem., 4, 1044 (1965).
68. E. J. Harfenist and L. C. Craig, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 74, 3083 (1952).
69. L. C. Craig, T. P. King, and W. H. Konigsberg, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 88, 571 (1960).
70. I. A. Mirsky and K. Kawamura, Endocrinology, 78, 1115 (1966).
71. M. Burger and W. Brandt, Z. ges. exptl. Med., 96, 375 (1935).
72. A. Staub, L. Sinn, and O. K. Behrens, J. Biol. Chem., 214, 619 (1955).
73. E. J. Harfenist, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 75, 5528 (1953).
74. K. Nagasawa, S. Nishizaki, T. Hiraoka, and S. Fukusawa, Bull. Natl. Inst. Hyg. Sci., 75, 95 (1957).
75. T. Deckert, Dissertation, University of Copenhagen (1965).
76. J. Brange and L. Langkjaer, Insulin structure and stability, in Stability and Characterization of Protein and Peptide Drugs: Case Histories (Y. J. Wang and R. Pearlman, eds.), Plenum, New York, 1993, Chap. 11.
77. J. Schlichtkrull, Acta Chem. Scand., 11, 291, 299, 439, 484, 1248 (1957).
78. K. Nagasawa, S. Nishizaki, Y. Takenaka, T. Honma, and T. Hiraoka, Bull. Natl. Inst. Hyg. Sci., 76, 217 (1958).
79. D. A. Scott, Biochem. J., 28, 1592 (1934).
80. K. Marcker, Acta Chem. Scand., 13, 2036 (1959).
81. D. A. Scott and A. M. Fisher, Biochem. J., 29, 1048 (1935).
82. D. A. Scott and A. M. Fisher, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 32V, 55 (1938).
83. Danish Patent 97,363, Novo Terapeutisk Lab. A./S. [Chem. Abstr., 61, 9580b (1964)].
84. E. Jensen, A. T. Jensen, and K. Marcker, Acta Chem. Scand., 14, 1919 (1960).
85. R. Netter, Bull. Soc. Chim. France, 6, D1042 (1939).
86. K. Brunfeldt, Science Tools, 12, 5, 17 (1965).
87. K. Hallas-Moller, Dissertation, University of Copenhagen (1945).
88. E. Ellanbogen, Dissertation, Harvard University (1949).
89. e Congr. Int. Biochim. Paris Resumes commun., 1952, p. 61.
90. B. W. Low and J. E. Berger, Acta Crystallogr., 14, 82 (1961).
91. F. Sundby, J. Biol. Chem., 237, 3406 (1962).
92. D. A. Scott and A. M. Fisher, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 36v, 45 (1942).
93. B. W. Low and J. R. Einstein, Nature (London), 186, 470 (1960).
94. J. R. Einstein, A. C. McGavin, and B. W. Low, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 49, 74 (1963).
95. M. M. Harding, D. Crowfoot-Hodgkin, A. F. Kennedy, A. O'Connor, and P. D. J. Weitzmann, J. Mol. Biol., 16, 212 (1966).
96. H. Zahn and J. Meienhofer, Makromol. Chem., 26, 153 (1958).
97. E. Dodson, M. M. Harding, D. Crowfoot-Hodgkin, and M. G. Rossmann, J. Mol. Biol., 16, 227 (1966).
98. E. Ellenbogen, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 77, 6634 (1955).
99. O. Wintersteiner, V. du Vigneaud, and H. Jensen, Studies on crystalline insulin. V. The distribution of nitrogen in crystalline insulin, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 32, 397 (1928).
100. A. P. Ryle, F. Sanger, L. F. Smith, and R. Kitai, The disulphide bonds of insulin, Biochem. J., 60, 541 (1955).
101. V. du Vigneaud, H. Jensen, and O. Wintersteiner, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap., 32, 367 (1928).
102. G. L. Miller and V. du Vigneaud, J. Biol. Chem., 118, 101 (1937).
103. K. Freudenberg and T. Wegmann, Hoppe-Seylers Z. Physiol. Chem., 233, 159 (1935).
104. H. Jensen and E. A. Evans Jr., J. Biol. Chem., 103, 1 (1935).
105. F. Sanger, Biochem. J., 39, 507 (1945).
106. G. Braunitzer, Angew. Chem., 69, 189 (1957).
107. F. Sanger, Biochem. J., 45, 563 (1949).
108. F. Sanger and H. Tuppy, Biochem. J., 49, 463, 481 (1951).
109. F. Sanger and E. O. P. Thompson, Biochem. J., 53, 353, 366 (1953).
110. F. Sanger, E. O. P. Thompson, and R. Kitai, Biochem. J., 59, 509 (1955).
111. F. Sanger, Nature (London), 164, 529 (1949).
112. H. Brown, F. Sanger, and R. Kitai, Biochem. J., 60, 556 (1955).
113. F. G. Young, Br. Med. J., II, 1449 (1961).
114. D. S. H. W. Nicol and L. F. Smith, Nature (London), 187, 483 (1960).
115. J. I. Harris, F. Sanger, and M. A. Naughton, Arch. Biochem. Biophysics, 65, 427 (1956).
116. Y. Ishihara, T. Saito, Y. Ito, and M. U. Fujino, Nature (London), 181, 1468 (1958).
117. H. Hama, K. Chitani, S. Sakaki, and K. Narita, J. Biochem. (Japan), 56, 285 (1964).
118. A. Kotaki, J. Biochem. (Japan), 50, 236 (1961).
119. A. Kotaki, J. Biochem. (Japan), 51, 301 (1962).
120. A. Kotaki, J. Biochem. (Japan), 53, 61 (1963).
121. B. Surmaczynska and R. Metz, Endocrinology, 85, 368 (1969).
122. F. H. Carpenter, Am. J. Med., 40, 750 (1966).
123. R. E. Chance, R. M. Ellis, and W. W. Bromer, Porcine proinsulin: Characterization and amino acid sequence. Science (NY), 161, 165 (1968).
124. D. Brandenburg and A. Wollmer, Insulin-Chemistry, Structure and Function of Insulin and Related Hormones, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1980.
125. S. Hvidt, 39, 205 (1991).
126. E. N. Baker, T. L. Blundell, J. F. Cutfield, S. M. Cutfield, E. J. Dodson, G. G. Dodson, D. M. C. Hodgkin, R. E. Hubbard, N. W. Isaacs, C. D. Reynolds, K. Sakabe, N. Sakabe, and N. M. Vijayan, Biol. Sci., 319, 369 (1988).
127. M. J. Adams, T. L. Blundell, E. J. Dodson, G. G. Dodson, M. Vijayan, E. N. Baker, M. M. Hardin, D. C. Hodgkin, B. Rimmer, and S. Sheat, Nature (London), 224, 491 (1969).
128. K. Linderstrom-Lang, Chem. Soc. Roy. Inst. (London), 2, 1 (1955).
129. J. T. Yang and P. Doty, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 79, 761 (1957).
130. L. I. Slobin and F. H. Carpenter, Biochemistry, 5, 499 (1966).
131. A. H. Pekar and B. H. Frank, Biochemistry, 11, 4013 (1972).
132. J. Goldman and F. H. Carpenter, Biochemistry, 13, 4566 (1974).
133. E. Elmerhorst and G. B. Stokes, Diabetes, 36, 261 (1987).
134. J. F. Hansen, Biophys. Chem., 39, 107 (1991).
135. L. W. Cunningham, R. L. Fischer, and C. S. Vestling, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 77, 5703 (1955).
136. J. Brange, D. R. Owens, S. Kang, and A. Volund, Diabetes Care, 13, 923 (1990).
137. U. Derewenta, Z. Derewenta, E. J. Dodson, G. G. Dodson, C. D. Reynolds, G. D. Smith, C. Sparks, and D. Swenson, Nature (London), 338, 594 (1989).
138. N. C. Kaarsholm, H.-C. Ko, and M. F. Dunn, Biochemistry, 28, 4427, (1989).
139. M. L. Brader and M. F. Dunn, Trends Biochem. Sci., 16, 341 (1991).
140. M. Bandys, T. Uchio, D. Mix, D. Wilson, and S. W. Kim, J. Pharm. Sci., 84, 28 (1995).
141. P. D. Jeffrey and J. H. Coates, Nature (London), 197, 1104 (1963).
142. P. D. Jeffrey and J. H. Coates, Biochim. Biophysica Acta, 109, 551 (1965).
143. K. Hallas-Moller, K. Petersen, and J. Schlichtkrull, Science, 116, 394 (1952).
144. H. Gutfreund, Biochem. J., 42, 544 (1948).
145. K. Marcker, Acta Chem. Scand., 14, 194 (1960).
146. E. Fredericq, Nature (London), 171, 570 (1953).
147. J. A. Schellman, C. R. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg, Ser. Chim., 30, 415 (1958).
148. P. Foenss-Bech and M. D. Nielson, Rept. Steno Mem. Hosp. Nord. Insulin Lab., 10, 127 (1961).
149. D. W. Kupke and K. Linderstrom-Lang, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 13, 153 (1954).
150. D. W. Kupke, C. R. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg. Ser. Chim., 32, 107 (1961).
151. E. Fredericq, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 79, 599 (1957).
152. D. A. Yphantis and D. F. Waugh, Biophys. Acta, 26, 218 (1957).
153. H. L. Crespi, R. A. Uphaus, and J. J. Katz, J. Phys. Chem., 60, 1190 (1956).
154. G. L. Miller and K. J. I. Anderson, J. Biol. Chem., 144, 475 (1942).
155. E. de Vito and J. A. Snatome, Experientia (Basel), 22, 124 (1966).
156. D. F. Waugh, Am. J. Physiol., 133, 484 (1941).
157. V. du Vigneaud, E. M. K. Geiling, and C. A. Eddy, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap., 33, 497 (1928).
158. D. F. Waugh, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 70, 1850 (1948).
159. V. du Vigneaud, J. Biol. Chem., 92, liv (1931).
160. J. Lens, J. Biol. Chem., 169, 313 (1947).
161. F. Bischoff and A. K. Bakhtiar, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 78, 1343 (1956).
162. D. F. Waugh, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 66, 663 (1944).
163. J. L. Farrant and E. H. Mercer, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 8, 355 (1952).
164. T.-H, Kung and T.-C. Tsao, Sci. Sinica, 13, 471 (1964).
165. D. F. Waugh, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 68, 247 (1946).
166. W. L. Koltun, D. F. Waugh, and R. S. Bear, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 76, 413 (1954).
167. D. F. Waugh, J. Cellular Comperat. Physiol., 49(suppl. 1), 145 (1957).
168. F. Oosawa and M. Kasai, J. Mol. Biol., 4, 10 (1962).
169. F. Lindner, Med. U. Chem., 4, 248 (1942).
170. N. R. Stephenson and R. G. Romans, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 12, 372 (1960).
171. J. Schultz, H. Allison, and M. Grice, Biochemistry, 1, 694 (1962).
172. G. F. Grannis, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 91, 255 (1960).
173. T. Vajda, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung., 21, 71 (1959).
174. T. Vajda, Chem. Ind., 1959, p. 197.
175. J. Lenard and G. P. Hess, J. Biol. Chem., 239, 3275 (1964).
176. J. W. Davies and G. Harris, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 74, 229, (1958).
177. R. D. Cole, J. Biol. Chem., 236, 2670 (1961).
178. Z.-X. Lu and F.-Y. Tang, Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sinica, 2, 234 (1962).
179. M. P. Drake, J. W. Giffee, D. A. Johnson, and V. L. Koenig, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 79, 1395 (1957).
180. A. M. Desai and K. S. Korgaonkar, Radiat. Res., 21, 61 (1964).
181. K. Nagasawa, G. Nakajama, J. Serizawa, H. Sato, and J. Shirai, Bull. Natl. Inst. Hyg. Sci. (Eisei Shikenjo Hokoku), 75, 5 (1957).
182. G. Weitzel, W. Schaeg, G. Boden, and B. Willms, Liebigs Ann. Chem., 689, 248 (1965).
183. L. Weill, T. S. Seibles, and T. T. Herskovits, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 111, 308 (1965).
184. E. Fredericq, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 9, 601 (1952).
185. L. I. Slobin and F. H. Carpenter, Biochemistry, 2, 22 (1963).
186. O. Wintersteiner, J. Biol. Chem., 102, 473 (1933).
187. V. du Vigneaud, J. Biol. Chem., 75, 393 (1927).
188. E. O. P. Thompson, Adv. Org. Chem., 1, 149 (1960).
189. H. Lindley, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 77, 4927 (1955).
190. J. Lens and J. Neutelings, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 4, 501 (1950).
191. R. Cecil and P. D. J. Weitzmann, Biochem. J., 93, 1 (1964).
192. G. Markus, J. Biol. Chem., 239, 4163 (1964).
193. P. D. J. Weitzmann, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 107, 146 (1965).
194. E. L. Smith, R. L. Hill, and A. Borman, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 29, 207 (1958).
195. J. A V. Butler, E. C. Dodds, D. M. P. Phillips, and J. M. L. Stephen, Biochem. J., 44, 224 (1949).
196. A. Ginsburg and H. K. Schachman, J. Biol. Chem., 235, 108 (1960).
197. E. S. Haugaard and N. Haugaard, C. R. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg Ser. Chim., 29, 350 (1955).
198. B. Meedom, C. R. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg Ser. Chim., 29, 403 (1955).
199. M. Bodanszky and J. Fried, French Patent M. 2800, 1964, [Chem. Abstr., 62, 12988b (1965)].
200. J. I. Harris and C. H. Li, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 74, 2945 (1952).
201. D. S. H. W. Nicol, Biochem. J., 75, 395 (1960).
202. F. H. Carpenter and W. H. Baum, J. Biol. Chem., 237, 409 (1962).
203. J. Fraenkel-Conrat and H. Fraenkel-Conrat, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 5, 89 (1950).
204. C. H. Li, Nature (London), 178, 1402 (1956).
205. R. L. Evans and H. A. Saroff, J. Biol. Chem., 228, 295 (1957).
206. W. Anderson, C. R. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg Ser. Chim., 30, 104 (1956).
207. D. S. H. W. Nicol, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 34, 257 (1959).
208. F. Tietze, G. E. Mortimore, and N. R. Lomax, Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 59, 336 (1962).
209. L. A. A. Sluyterman and J. M. Kwestroo-van-den-Bosch, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 38, 102 (1960).
210. e Colloq. St. Jans. Hosp. Brugge, 1955, p. 97 [Chem. Abstr., 51, 13148c (1957)].
211. e Colloq. St. Jans. Hosp. Brugge, 1955, p. 97 [Chem. Abstr., 51, 13148c (1957)].
212. H. C. Reitz, R. E. Ferrel, H. Fraenkel-Conrat, and H. S. Olcott, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 68, 1024 (1946).
213. M. B. Glendening, D. M. Greenberg, and H. Fraenkel-Conrat, J. Biol. Chem., 167, 125 (1947).
214. P. J. Maloney, M. A. Aprile, and S. Wilson, J. New Drugs, 4, 258 (1964).
215. P. H. Springell, Biochem. J., 83, 7P (1962).
216. P. H. Springell, Biochim, Biophys. Acta, 63, 136 (1962).
217. N. D. Lee, Fed. Proc., 18, 271 (1959).
218. L. W. deZoeten, O. A. deBruin, and J. Everse, Recueil Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas, 80, 907, 917 (1961).
219. J. G. Cory, C. C. Bigelow, and E. Frieden, Biochemistry, 1, 419 (1962).
220. J. L. Izzo, W. F. Bale, M. J. Izzo, and A. Roncone, J. Biol. Chem., 239, 3743 (1964).
221. L. W. de Zoeten and R. V. Strik, Recueil Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas, 80, 297 (1961).
222. C. J. Garrat, Nature (London), 201, 1324 (1964).
223. J. L. Izzo, A. Roncone, M. J. Izzo, and W. F. Bale, J. Biol. Chem., 239, 3749 (1964).
224. S. Genuth, L. A. Frohman, and H. E. Lebovitz, J. Clin. Edocrinol. Metab., 25, 1043 (1965).
225. K. Brunfeldt and T. Deckert, Acta Endocrinol., 47, 353 (1964).
226. V. du Vigneaud, Les Prix Nobel en 1955, Kungl. Boktr. P. A. Norstedt and Soner, Stockholm, 1956.
227. Y.-T. Kung, Y.-C. Du, W.-T. Huang, C.-C. Chen, L.-T. Ke, S.-C. Hu, R.-Q. Jiang, S.-Q. Chu, C.-I. Niu, J.-Z. Hsu, W.-C. Chang, L.-L. Cheng, H.-S. Li, Y. Wang, T.-P. Loh, A.-H. Chi, C.-H. Li, P.-T. Shi, Y.-H. Yie, K.-L. Tang, and C.-Y. Hsing, Sci. Sinica, 14, 1710 (1965).
228. Y.-T. Kung, Y.-C. Du, W.-T. Huang, C.-C. Chen, L.-T. Ke, C.-C. Hu, R.-Q Jiang, S.-Q. Chu, C.-I Niu, J.-Z. Hsu, W.-C. Chang, L.-L. Cheng, H.-S. Li, Y. Wang, T.-P. Loh, A.-H. Chi, C.-H. Li, P.-T. Shi, Y.-H, Yie, K.-L. Tang, and C.-Y. Hsing, Sci. Sinica, 15, 544 (1966).
229. Y.-T. Kung, Y.-C. Du, W.-T. Huang, C.-C. Chen, L.-T. Ke, S.-C. Hu, R.-Q Jiang, S.-Q. Chu, C.-I Niu, J.-Z. Hsu, W.-C. Chang, L.-L. Cheng, H.-S. Li, Y. Wang, T.-P. Loh, A.-H. Chi, C.-H. Li, P.-T. Shi, Y.-H. Yie, K.-L. Tang, and C.-Y. Hsing, Kexue Tongbao, 17, 241 (1966).
230. H. Zahn, J. Meienhofer, and E. Schnabel, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci. (Hung.), 44, 109 (1965).
231. H. Zahn, H. Bremer, and R. Zabel, Z. Naturforsch, 20b, 653 (1965).
232. J. Meienhofer and E. Schnabel, Z. Naturforsch, 20b, 661 (1965).
233. W. F. Benisek and R. D. Cole, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 20, 655 (1965).
234. A. P. Ryle, F. Sanger, L. F. Smith, and R. Kitai, Biochem. J., 60, 541 (1955).
235. J. Markussen, U. Damgaard, M. Pingel, L. Snel, A. Sorensen, and E. Sorensen, Diabetes Care, 6(suppl.1), 4 (1983).
236. D. S. H. W. Nicol and L. F. Smith, Nature, 187, 483 (1960).
237. M. Bodanszky and J. Fried, Process for preparing human insulin. U.S. Patent 3,276,961, 1966.
238. K. Morihara, T. Oka, and H. Tsuzuki, Nature, 280 412-413 (1979).
239. J. Markussen, Process for preparing esters of human insulin, U.S. Patent 4,343,898, 1982.
240. F. Sanger and H. Tuppy, Biochem. J., 49, 463-481 (1951).
241. C. D. Reynolds, S. A. Chawdhury, E. J. Dodson, G. G. Dodson, and S. Tolley, The crystal structure of two-zinc human insulin, in: Proc. Joint FDA/USP Intl. Workshop on Drug and References Standards for Insulin, Somatotropins and Thyroid-Axis Drugs, (J. L. Gueriguian, ed.), Bethesda, 1982.
242. British Pharmacopoeia, Biological assay of insulin, A141-142, 1980.
243. European Pharmacopoeia, Assay of insulin, 75-77, 1975.
244. United States Pharmacopoeia, Insulin assay, 900-901, 1980.
245. D. R. Bangham, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (a WHO International Laboratory for Biological Standards), Holly Hill, Hampstead, London NW3 6RB England.
246. D. V. Goeddel, H. L. Heyneker, T. Hozumi, R. Arentzen, K. Itakura, D. G. Yansura, M. J. Ross, G. Miozzari, R. Crea, and P. H. Seeburg, Nature, 281, 544 (1979).
247. R. E. Chance, E. P. Kroeff, J. A. Hoffman, and B. H. Frank, Diabetes Care, 4, 147 (1981).
248. I. S. Johnson, Diabetes Care, 5(suppl.2), 4 (1982).
249. B. H. Frank, J. M. Pettee, R. E. Zimmerman, and P. J. Burck, The production of human proinsulin and its transformation to human insulin and C-peptide, in Proc. 7th Am. Peptide Symp. on Peptides: Synthesis - Structure - Function (D. H. Rich and R. Gross. eds.), Pierce Chem. Co., Rockford, IL, 1981, pp. 729-738.
250. J. J. Abel, Crystalline insulin, Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci USA, 12, 132 (1926).
251. J. A. Galloway, Current trends in diabetes therapy, in Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, Vol. 5, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1984, pp. 33-35.
252. H. C. Hagedorn, B. N. Jensen, N. B. Karup, and I. Woodstrup, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 106, 17-180 (1936).
253. B. E. Hazlett, Historical perspective: The discovery of insulin, in Clinical Diabetes Mellitus: A Problem-Oriented Approach (J. R. Davidson, ed.), Thieme, New York, 1986, pp. 2-10.
254. C. Krayenbuhl and T. Rosenberg, Rep. Steno Mem. Hosp., 1, 60-73 (1946).
255. J. A. Galloway, Diabetes Care, 3, 615-622 (1980).
256. K. Hallas-Moller, Diabetes, 5, 7 (1956).
257. C. Binder, Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. (Copenh.), 27(suppl. 2), 1 (1969).
258. J. A. Galloway, C. T. Spradlin, R. L. Nelson, S. M. Wentworth, J. A. Davidson, and J. L. Swarner, Diabetes Care, 4, 366-376 (1981).
259. D. R. Owens, Human Insulin, Clinical Pharmacologic Studies in Normal Man, MTP Press Limited, Lancaster, England, 1986.
260. E. F. Pfeiffer, Ch. Thum, and A. H. Clemens, Horm. Metab. Res., 6, 339 (1974).
261. C. Binder, T. Lauritzen, O. Faber, and S. Pramming, Diabetes Care, 7, 199 (1984).
262. L. Sacca, G. Orofino, A. Petrone, and C. Vigorito, Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 59, 191 (1984).
263. B. Thorsteinsson, S. Fugleberg, and C. Binder, Diabetologia, 29, 898 (1986).
264. S. Pramming, T. Lauritzen, B. Thorsteinsson, K. Johansen, and C. Binder, Acta Endocrinol., 105, 215 (1984).
265. C. Binder, Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol., 2(suppl.), 1 (1969).
266. P. Hildebrandt, L. Sestoft, and S. L. Nielsen, Diabetes Care, 6, 459 (1983).
267. B. Edsberg, D. Herly, P. Hildebrandt, and C. Kuhl, Br. Med. J., 294, 1373 (1987).
268. L. Sestoft, A. Volund, S. Gammeltoft, K. Birch, and P. Hildebrandt, Acta Med. Scand., 212, 21 (1982).
269. E. Fernqvist-Forbes, R. Gunnarsson, and B. Linde, Diabetic Med., 6, 621 (1989).
270. P. Hildebrandt and K. Birch, Diabetic Med., 5, 434 (1988).
271. E. W. Moore, M. L. Mitchell, and T. C. Chalmers, J. Clin. Invest., 38, 1222 (1959).
272. E. Mosekilde, K. S. Jensen, C. Binder, S. Pramming, and B. Thorsteinsson, J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm., 17, 67 (1989).
273. P. Hildebrandt, K. Birch, L. Sestoft, and S. L. Nielsen, Diabetes Res., 2, 187 (1985).
274. K. Kolendorf, J. Bojsen, and S. L. Nielsen, Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 25, 598 (1979).
275. T. Lauritzen, C. Binder, and O. K. Faber, Acta Paediatr. Scand., 283(suppl.), 81 (1980).
276. P. Hildebrandt, P. Sejrsen, S. L. Nielsen, K. Birch, and L. Sestoft, Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest., 45, 685 (1985).
277. H. B. Bohidar and E. Geissler, Biochemistry, 23, 2407 (1984).
278. T. L. Blundell, G. C. Dodson, D. L. Holmberg, and J. C. McRea, Adv. Protein Chem., 26, 279 (1972).
279. C. Binder, A theoretical model for the absorption of soluble insulin, in Artificial Systems for Insulin Delivery (P. Brunetti, K. G. M. M. Alberti, A. M. Albisser, K. D. Hepp, and M. Massi Benedetti, eds.), Raven, New York, 1983, p. 53.
280. U. Ribel, K. Jorgensen, J. Brange, and U. Henriksen, The pig as a model for subcutaneous insulin absorption in man, in Diabetes - 1985 (M. Serrano-Rios and P. J. Lefebvre, eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1986, p. 891.
281. A. W. Patrick, A. Collier, D. M. Matthews, C. C. A. MacIntyre, and B. F. Clarke, Diabetic Med., 5, 32 (1988).
282. P. Bottermann, H. Gyaram, K. Wahl, R. Ermler, and A. Lebender Diabetes Care, 4, 168 (1981).
283. F. W. Kemmer, G. Sonnenberg, H. J. Cuppers, and M. Berger, Diabetes Care, 5(suppl. 2), 23 (1982).
284. J. A. Galloway, M. A. Root, R. Bergstrom, C. T. Spradlin, D. C. Howey, S. E. Fineberg, and R. L. Jackson, Diabetes Care, 5(suppl. 2), 13 (1982).
285. G. E. Sonnenberg, F. W. Kemmer, H.-J. Cuppers, and M. Berger, Diabetes Care, 6(suppl. 1), 35 (1983).
286. W. K. Waldhausl, P.R. Bratusch-Marrain, H. Vierhapper, and P. Nowotny, Metabolism, 32, 478 (1983).
287. E. Fernqvist, B. Linde, J. Ostman, and R. Gunnarsson, Clin. Physiol., 6, 489 (1986).
288. M. Gulan, I. S. Gottesman, and B. Zinman, Ann. Intern. Med., 107, 506 (1987).
289. G. E. Sonnenberg and M. Berger, Diabetologia, 25, 457 (1983).
290. R. J. Heine, A. C. Sikkenk, H. J. G. Bilo, J. van der Meer, and E. A. van der Veen, Diabetic Med., 2, 175 (1985).
291. T. Lauritzen S. Pramming, E. A. Gale, T. Deckert, and C. Binder, Br. Med. J., 285, 159 (1982).
292. P. D. Home, N. P. Mann, A. S. Hutchison, R. Park, S. Walford, M. Murphy, and W. G. Reeves, Diabetic Med., 1, 93 (1984).
293. P. D. Home and K. G. M. M. Alberti, Drugs, 24, 401 (1982).
294. A. Teuscher and W. G. Berger, Lancet, 1987, p. 382.
295. S. Gray, P. Cowan, U. Di Mario, R. A. Elton, B. F. Clarke, and L. P. J. Duncan, Br. Med. J., 290, 1687 (1985).
296. T. W. Van Haeften, G. B. Bolli, G. D. Dimitriadis, I. S. Gottesman, D. L. Horwitz, and J. E. Gerich, Metabolism, 35, 649 (1986).
297. G. B. Bolli, G. D. Dimitriadis, G. B. Pehling, B. A. Baker, M. W. Haymond, P. E. Cryer, and J. E. Gerich, N. Engl. J. Med., 310, 1706 (1984).
298. R. J. Heine, Neth. J. Med., 28(suppl. 1), 12 (1985).
299. R. J. Heine, H. J. G. Bilo, T. Fonk, E. A. van der Veen, and J. van der Meer, Diabetologia, 27, 558 (1984).
300. R. J. Heine and I. Muhlhauser, Diabetologia, 28, 252 (1985).
301. A. J. Francis, I. Hanning, and K. G. M. M. Alberti, Diabetic Med., 2, 177 (1985).
302. I. Muhlhauser, C. Broermann, M. Tsotsalas, and M. Berger, Br. Med. J., 289, 1656 (1984).
303. J. A. Galloway, C. T. Spradlin, D. C. Howey, and J. Dupre, Intrasubject differences in the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic responses: The immutable problem of present-day treatment? in Diabetes (M. Serrano-Ruis and J. LeFebvre, eds.), Elsevier, New York, 1985 p. 877.
304. R. R. Holman and R. C. Turner, Diabetic Med., 2, 45, (1985).
305. J. S. Skyler, Diabetes Care, 9, 666, 1986.
306. A. Schiffrin and M. M. Belmonte, Diabetes, 31, 255 (1982).
307. R. C. Turner, M. A. Phillips, and E. A. Ward, Acta Med. Scand. (suppl.), 671, 75 (1983).
308. J. A. Galloway and R. Bressler, Med. Clin. North Am. 62, 663 (1978).
309. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial, Design and methodologic considerations for the feasibility phase, Diabetes, 35, 530 (1986).
310. R. R. Holman and R. C. Turner, Lancet, 1, 469 (1977).
311. F. G. Banting and C. H. Best, J. Lab. Clin. Med., 7, 464 (1922).
312. P. Reichard, A. Britz, I. Cars, B. Y. Nilsson, B. Sobocinsky-Olsson, and U. Rosenqvist, Acta Med. Scand., 224, 115 (1988).
313. R. H. Unger, Diabetes, 31, 479 (1982).
314. P. D. Home, J. C. Thow, and F. K. E. Tunbridge, Br. Med. Bull., 45, 92 (1989).
315. J. S. Skyler, Issues, controversies and directions in diabetes care, in Diabetes - 1988 (R. Larkins, P. Zimmet, and D. Chisholm, eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1989, p. 793.
316. B. Zinman, N. Engl. J. Med., 321, 363 (1989).
317. J. A. Galloway, C. T. Spradlin, R. L. Nelson, S. M. Wentworth, J. A. Davidson, and J. L. Swarner, Diabetes Care, 4, 366 (1981).
318. M. Berger, H. J. Cuppers, H. Hegner, V. Jorgens, and P. Berchtold, Diabetes Care, 5, 77 (1982).
319. C. Binder, T. Lauritzen, O. Faber, and S. Pramming, Diabetes Care, 7, 188 (1984).
320. D. R. Owens, Human insulin: Clinical pharmacological studies in normal man, MD thesis, Medical and Technical, Lancaster, U.K. (1986).
321. R. J. Heine, New aids for treatment-heading in the right direction, in Diabetes - 1988 (R. Larkins, R. Zimmet, and D. Chisholm, eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1989, p. 1231.
322. R. Tattersall and E. Gale, Am. J. Med., 70, 177 (1981).
323. J. S. Skyler, N. E. Miller, M. J. O'Sullivan, M. L. Reeves, E. A. Ryan, D. E. Seigler, D. L. Skyler, and M. A. Zigo, Use of insulin in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, in Insulin Update (J. S. Skyler, ed.), Excerpta Med., Princeton, NJ, 1982, pp. 125-156.
324. P. J. Watkins, Br. Med. J., 284, 1929 (1982).
325. W. Oakley, D. Hill, and N. Oakley, Diabetes, 15, 219 (1966).
326. J. S. Skyler, D. L. Skyler, D. E. Seigler, and M. J. O'Sullivan, Diabetes Care, 4, 311 (1981).
327. J. C. Pickup, H. Keen, J. A. Parson, and K. G. M. M. Alberti, Br. Med. J., 1, 204 (1978).
328. J. C. Pickup, H. Keen, G. C. Viberti, M. C. White, E. M. Kohner, J. A. Parsons, and K. G. M. M. Alberti, Diabetes Care, 3, 290 (1980).
329. W. V. Tamborlane, R. S. Sherwin, M. Genel, and P. Felig, N. Engl. J. Med., 300, 573 (1979).
330. M. C. Champion, G. A. A. Shepherd, N. W. Rodger, and J. Dupre, Diabetes 29, 206 (1980).
331. T. Lauritzen, S. Pramming, T. Deckert, and C. Binder, Diabetologia, 24, 326 (1983).
332. R. A. Rizza, J. E. Gerich, M. W. Haymond, R. E. Westland, L. D. Hall, A. H. Clemens, and F. J. Service, N. Engl. J. Med., 303, 1313 (1980).
333. M. L. Reeves, D. E. Seigler, E. A. Ryan, and J. S. Skyler, Am. J. Med., 72, 673 (1982).
334. M. Philips, R. W. Simpson, R. R. Holman, and R. C. Turner, Q. J. Med., 191, 493 (1979).
335. J. P. Hosker and R. C. Turner, Lancet, 2, 633 (1982).
336. R. C. Turner, M. Phillips, R. Jones, T. L. Dornan, and R. R. Holman, Ultralente-based insulin regimens in insulin-dependent diabetics in Insulin Update (J. S. Skyler, ed.), Excerpta Med., Princeton, NJ, 1982, p. 157.
337. R. C. Turner, M. A. Phillips, and E. A. Ward, Acta Med. Scand., 671(suppl.), 75 (1983).
338. R. R. Holman, T. L. Dornan, V. Mayon-White, J. Howard-Williams, C. Orde-Peckar, L. Jenkins, J. Steemson, R. Rolfe, B. Smith, D. Barbour, K. McPherson, P. Poon, C. Rizza, M. I. Mann, A. H. Knight, A. J. Bron, and R. C. Turner, Lancet, 1, 204 (1983).
339. C. M. G. J. Houtzagers, P. A. Berntzen, H. van der Stap, W. W. A. Van Maarschalkerweerd, P. Lanting, I. Boen-Tan, R. J. Heine, and E. A. van der Veen, Diabetic Med., 6, 416 (1989).
340. J. Schlichtkrull, Acta Paediatr. Scand., 207(suppl.), 97 (1977).
341. S. Y. Jeong, S. W. Kim, M. J. D. Eenink, and J. Feijen, J. Control. Release, 1, 57 (1984).
342. F. G. Banting, W. R. Franks, and S. Gairns, Am. J. Psychiat., 95, 562 (1938).
343. P. J. Maloney and M. Coval, Biochem. J., 59, 179 (1955).
344. P. H. Wright, Br.Med. Bull., 16, 219 (1960).
345. M. Kitagawa, K. Onoue, Y. Okamura, M. Anai, and Y. Yamamura, J. Biochem. (Japan), 48, 483 (1960).
346. P. J. Moloney, in Ciba Found. Coll. on Endocrinology, Vol. 14, Churchill, London, 1962, p. 169.
347. G. M. Grodsky and P. H. Forsham, J. Clin. Invest., 40, 779 (1961).
348. S. A. Berson and R. S. Yalow, J. Clin. Invest., 38, 2017 (1959).
349. E. R. Arquilla in Ciba Found. Coll. on Endocrinology, Vol. 14, Churchill, London, 1962, p. 146.
350. A. E. Renold, J. S. Soeldner, and J. Steinke, in Ciba Found. Coll. on Endocrinology, Vol. 15, Churchill, London, 1964, p. 122.
351. D. H. Lockwood and T. E. Prout, Metabolism, 14, 530 (1965).
352. K. Brunfeldt and T. Deckert, Acta Endocrinol., 47, 367 (1964).
353. S. A. Berson and R. S. Yalow, Nature (London), 191, 1392 (1961).
354. E. R. Arquilla, Diabetologia, 3, 1 (1966).
355. R. S. Yalow and S. A. Berson, Am. J. Med., 31, 882 (1961).
356. J. Th. S. de V. van Doesburgh and E. Havinga, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 82, 96 (1964).
357. S. Wilson, G. H. Dixon, and A. C. Wardlaw, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 62, 483 (1962).
358. S. A. Berson and R. S. Yalow, Diabetes, 6, 402 (1957).