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To obtain the accuracies necessary for atmospheric work, we used a modified version of the GIPSY-OASIS II system developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX/Poseidon) to determine receiver and transmitter orbits, and to calibrate and remove receiver and transmitter clock biases and instabilities (9, 24). Vertical smoothing, decreasing from ∼1.4 km in the stratosphere to ∼0.5 km near the surface, was also applied to the Doppler frequency measurements to make them consistent with the Fresnel diffraction resolution limit (3, 7). Finally, unwanted dispersive ionospheric contributions to bending were removed by forming a linear combination of the bending angles estimated independently for each of the two GPS signal frequencies (25)
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The research described here was largely performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, supported jointly by NASA and the California Institute of Technology through the Caltech President's fund. We are grateful to our collaborators, GPS-MET principal investigator R Ware and project manager M. Exner, of the UCAR, Boulder, CO, for providing us with access to raw flight data from the GPS-MET experiment. We also thank the ECMWF for providing us with atmospheric data, software, and assistance with data interpretation and M. E. Gelman of the National Meteorological Center (NMC) for many useful discussions on the NMC radiosonde data set.
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