Carbon dioxide formation and elimination in man: Recent theories and possible consequences

Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences

Volumn 101, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 35-68

  Wiklund, Lars ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; BICARBONATE; CARBON DIOXIDE; PROTON; UREA;

ACID BASE BALANCE; ANIMAL; BLOOD; BREAST MILK; BREATHING; CHEMISTRY; DISORDERS OF ACID BASE BALANCE; HUMAN; INFANT; KIDNEY; METABOLISM; NEWBORN; PH; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME;

ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIUM; ACID-BASE IMBALANCE; AMMONIA; ANIMALS; BICARBONATES; CARBON DIOXIDE; HUMANS; HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; KIDNEY; METABOLISM; MILK, HUMAN; PROTONS; RESPIRATION; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH; UREA;

EID: 0029715629     PISSN: 03009734     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/03009739609178913     Document Type: Review

References (71)

1. 2 of 40 normal values for man? Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1976:12.5-13.
2. Rahn, H.: Body temperature and acid-base regulation. Pneumologie 1974:151:87-94.
3. Sahlin, K.: Intracellular pH and energy metabolism in the skeletal mucle of man.: With special reference to exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1978:suppl 455:1-56.
4. Davies, B.D.: The importance of being ionized. Arch Biochem Biophys 1958:78:497-509.
5. Christensen, H.N.: General concepts of neutrality regulation. Am J Surg 1962:103:286-288
6. Kashiwagura, T., Deutsch, C.J., Taylor, J., Erecinska, M., Wilson, D.F.: Dependence of glucuneogenesis, urea synthesis, and energy metabolism of hepatocytes on intracellular pH. J Biol Chem 1984:259:237-243.
7. Somero, G.N., White, F.N.: Enzymatic consequences under alphastat regulation. In: Acid-base regulation and body temperature. Eds: H Rahn, O Prakash. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht 1985, pp 55-81.
8. Rahn, H., Howell, B. J.: The OH-/H+ concept of acid base balance. Historical development. Respir Physiol 1978:33:91-97.
9. Rahn, H., Reeves, R.B., Howell, B.J.: Hydrogen ion regulation, temperature and evolution. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975:112:165-172.
10. Rahn, H., Reeves, R.B.: Hydrogen ion regulation during hypothermia, from the Amazon to the operating room. In: Applied physiology in clinical respiratory care. Ed.: O Prakash. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. The Hague 1982, pp 1-15.
11. Rahn, H.: Introduction. In: Acid-base regulation and body temperature. Eds.: H Rahn and O Prakash. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht 1985. pp 1-13.
12. Tønnesen, T.I.: Regulation of cytosolic pH in mammalian cells. Academic Thesis. The Norwegian Cancer Society, Oslo 1990, ppl-53.
13. Atkinson, D.E., Camien, M.N.: The role of urea synthesis in the removal of metabolic bicarbonate and the regulation of pH. Curr Top Cell Regul 1982:21:261-302.
14. Jungas, R.L., Halperin, M.L., Brosnan, J.T.: Quantitative analysis of amino acid oxidation and related gluconeogenesis in humans. Physiol Rev 1992:72:419-448.
15. Halperin, M.L., Kamel, K.S., Ethier, J.H., Stinebaugh, B.J., Jungas, R.L.: Biochemistry and physiology of ammonium excretion. In: The kidney, physiology and pathophysiology. 2nd ed. Eds.: DW Seldin, G Giebisch. Raven Press New York 1992, pp 2645-2679.
16. Walzer, M.: Roles of urea production, ammonium excretion, and amino acid oxidation in acid-base balance. Am J Physiol 1986:250 ( Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol 19):F181-F188.
17. Bourke, E., Atkinson, D.E.: The development of acid-base concepts and their application to mammalian pH homeostasis. In: pH homeostasis, mechanisms and control. Ed. D Häussinger. Academic Press Ltd London 1988, pp 163-179.
18. Nunn, J.F.: Carbon dioxide. In: Applied respiratory physiology: Fourth ed. Butterworth Heinemann Ltd Oxford 1993. pp 219-246.
19. Staub, N.C.: Basic respiratory physiology. Churchill Livingstone, New York 1991.
20. Siggaard-Andersen, O., Engel, K.: A new acid-base nomogram. An improved method for the calculation of the relevant acid-base data. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1960:12:177- 186.
21. Astrup, P., Siggaard-Andersen, O., Jørgensen, K, Engel, K.: The acid base metabolism. A new approch. Lancet 1960:I:1035- 1039.
22. Siggaard-Andersen, O.: The acid-base status of the blood. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1963:15:Suppl 70:1-134.
23. Siggaard-Andersen, O., Wiberly, P.D., Fogh-Andersen, N., Gøthgen, I.H.: Measured and derived quantities with modern pH and blood gas equipment: calculation algorithms with 54 eqations. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1988:48:Suppl 189:7-15.
24. Maren, T.H.: Carbonic anhydrase: chemistry, physiology and inhibition. Physiol Rev 1967:47:595-781.
25. m of ammonia for carbamoyl phosphate synthetase (ammonia) in situ. Biochem J 1985:229:205-211.
26. Häussinger, D., Meijer, A.J, Gerok, W., Sies, H.: Hepatic nitrogen metabolism and acid-base homeostasis. In: pH homeostasis, mechanisms and control. Ed. D Häussinger. Academic Press Ltd London 1988, pp 337-377.
27. Newsholme, E.A, Leech, A.R: Metabolism of ammonia. In: Biochemistry for the medical sciences. John Wiley & Sons Chicester, 1986, pp 481-508.
28. Walser, M., Bodenlos, L.J.: Urea metabolism in man. J Clin Invest 1959:38:1617-1626.
29. Summerskill, W.H.J., Wolpert, E.: Ammonia metabolism in the gut. Am J Clin Nutr 170:23:633-639.
30. Atkinson, D.E., Bourke, E.: The role of ureagenesis in pH homeostasis. TIBS 1984:July: 291-302.
31. Wheeler, R.A., Jackson, A.A., Griffiths, D.M.: Urea production and recycling in neonates. J Pediatr Surg 1991:26:575-577.
32. Wheeler, R.A., Griffiths, D.M., Jackson, A.A.: Urea kinetics in neonates receiving total parenteral nutrition. Arch Dis Child 1993:69:(1 spec No):24-27.
33. Karlsson, T., Stjernström, H., Jorfeldt, L., Hillered, L., Wiklund, L.: Turn-over of energy substrates in the splanchnic region of pigs during hypocapnic hyperventilation and during metabolic alkalosis. Submitted for publication.
34. Weber, F.L. Jr, Banwell, J.G., Fresard, K.M., Cummings, J.H.: Nitrogen in fecal bacterial, fiber, and soluable fractions of patients with cirrhosis: Effects of lactulose and lactulose and neomycin. J Lab Clin Med 1987:110:259-263.
35. Farhi, L.E., Rahn, H.: Gas stores of body and unsteady state. J Appl Physiol 1955:7:472- 484.
36. Farhi, L.E., Rahn, H.: Dynamics of changes in carbon dioxide stores. Anesthesiology 1960:21:604-614.
37. Teorell, T.:Kinetics of distribution of substances administered to the body. I. The extravascular modes of administration and II The extravascular modes of administration . Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 1937:57:205-225 and 226-240.
38. Enghoff, H.: Zur Frage des schädlichen Raumes bei der Atmung. Skand Arch Physiol 1931:63:15-74.
39. Enghoff, H.: Volumen inefficax. Bemerkungen zur Frage des schädlichen Raumes. Upsala Läkarförenings förhandlingar 1938:44:191-218.
40. Nunn, J.F., Holmdahl, M.H:son: Henrik Enghoff and the volumen inefficax. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1990:Suppl 34:24-26.
41. Henneberg, S., Söderberg, D, Groth, T., Stjernström, H., Wiklund, L.: Carbon dioxide production during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 1987:15:8-13.
42. Alpern, R.J., Stone, D.K., Rector, F.C.Jr: Renal acidification mechanisms. In: The kidney. 4th Ed. Eds: Brenner BM and Rector FC Jr. WB Saunders Comp Philadelphia 1991, pp 318-379.
43. Halperin, M.L., Jungas, R.L.: Metabolic production and renal disposal of hydrogen ions. Kidney Int 1983:24:709-713.
44. Newsholme, E.A., Leech, A.R.: Amino acid metabolism. In: Biochemistry for the medical sciences. John Wiley & Sons Chicester, 1986, pp 382-441.
45. Welbourne, T.C.: Interorgan glutamine fluxes in acid-base disturbances. In: pH homeostasis, mechanisms and control. Ed. D Häussinger. Academic Press Ltd London 1988, pp 379-401.
46. Milner, A.D.: Recent theories on the cause of cot death. Brit Med J 1987:295:1366-1368
47. Huffman, H.J., Hillman, L.S.: Epidemiology of the sudden infant death syndrome: Maternal, neonatal, and postneonatal risk factors. Clin Perinatol 1992:19:717-737.
48. Hunt, C.E.: The cardiorespiratory control hypothesis for sudden infant death syndrome. Clin Perinatol 1992:19:757-771.
49. Meny, R.G., Carroll, J.L., Carbone, M.T., Kelly, D.H.: Cardiorespiratory recordings from infants dying suddenly and unexpectedly at home. Pediatrics 1994:93:44-49.
50. Ponsonby, A-L, Dwyer, T., Gibbons, L.E., Cochrane, J.A., Wang, Y-G.: Factors potentiating the risk of sudden infant death syndrome associated with the prone position. N Engl J Med 1993:329:377-382.
51. Kahn, A., Groswasser, J., Rebuffat, E., Sottiaux, M., Blum, D.; Foerster, M., Franco, P., Bochner, A., Alexander, M., Bachy, A., Richard, P., Verghote, M., Polain, L.E, Wayenberg, L.: Sleep and cardiorespiratory characteristics of infant victims of sudden death: A prospective case-control study. Sleep 1992:15:287-292.
52. Schechtman, V.L., Harper, R.M., Wilson, A.J., Southall, D.P.: Sleep state organization in normal infants and victims of the sudden infant death sydrome. Pediatrics 1992:89:865-870.
53. Jacobi M.S., Gershan, W.M., Thach, B.T.: Mechanism of failure of recovery from hypoxic apnoea by gasping in 17- to 23-day-old mice. J Appl Physiol 1991:71:1098-1105.
54. Macy, G.: Composition of human colostrum and milk. Am J Dis Child 1949:78:589-595.
55. Hambrseus, L., Lönnerdal, B., Forsum, E., Gebre-Medhin, M.: Nitrogen and protein components of human milk. Acta Pædiatr Scand 1978:67:561-565.
56. Heine, W., Grütte, F., Wutzke, K, Stolpe, H.J., Thiess, M., Müller, W.: Harnstoff als Substrat für die Darmflora des Säuglings. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 1982:130:284-286.
57. Heine, W., Tiess, M., Stolpe, H.J., Wutzke, K.D.: Urea utilization by the intestinal flora of infants fed mother's milk and a formula diet, as measured with the 15N-tracer technique. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1984:3:709-712.
58. Vince, A., Dawson, A.M., Park, N., O'Grady, F.: Ammonia production by intestinal bacteria. Gut 1973:14:171-177.
59. Gibson, J.A., Park, N.J., Sladen, G.E., Dawson, A.M.: The role of the colon in urea metabolism in man. Clin Sci Mol Med 1976:50:51-59.
60. Wolpert, E., Phillips, S.F., Summerskil, W.H.J.: Transport of urea and ammonia production in the human colon. Lancet 1971:II:1387-1390.
61. Gibbons, R.J., Doetsch, R.N.: Physiological study of an obligatory anaerobic ureolytic bacterium. J Bacteriol 1959:77:417-428.
62. Suzuki, K., Benno, Y., Mitsuoka, T., Takebe, S., Kobashi, K., Hase, J.: Urease-producing species of intestinal anaerobes and their activities. Appl Environment Micobiol 1979:37:379-382.
63. Fomon, S.J., Mattews, D.E., Bier, D.M., Rogers, R.R., Rebouche, C.J., Edwards, B.B., Nelson, S.E.: Bioavailability of dietary urea nitrogen in the infant. J Pediatr 1987:111:221-224.
64. Fomon, S.J., Bier, D.M., Mattews, D.E., Rogers, R.R., Edwards, B.B., Ziegler, E.E., Nelson, S.E.: Bioavailability of dietary urea nitrogen in the breast-fed infant. J Pediatr 1988:113:515-517.
65. Donovan, S.M., Lönnerdal, B., Atkinson, S.A.: Bioavailability of urea nitrogen for the low birthweight infant. Acta pædiatr Scand 1990:79:899-905.
66. Hambraeus, L.: Proprietary milk versus human breast milk in infant feeding. A critical appraisal from the nutritional point of view. Pediatr Clin North Am 1977:24:17-36.
67. Harzer, G., Franzke, V., Bindels, J.G. : Human milk non-protein nitrogen components: changing patterns of free amino acids and urea in the course of early lactation. Am J Clin Nutr 1984:40:303-309.
68. Blumenfeld, T.A., Mantell, C.H., Catherman, RL., Blanc, W.A.: Postmortem vitrous humor chemistry in sudden infant death syndrome and other causes of death in childhood. Am J Clin Pathol 1979:71:219-223.
69. Boehm, G., Gedlu, E., Müller, M.D., Beyreiss, K, Räihä, N.C.R.: Relationship between urea and ammonium excretion in the urine of very-low-birth-weight infants appropriate for gestional age. Biomed Biochim Acta 1990:49:69-74.
70. Boehm, G., Gedlu, E., Müller, M.D., Beyreiss, K., Räihä, N.C.R.: Postnatal development of urea- and ammonia-excretion in the urine of very-low-birth-weight infants small for gestational age. Acta Pædiatr Hung 1991:31:31-45.
71. Boehm, G., Teichmann, B., Jung, K.: Development of urea-synthesizing capacity in preterm infants during the first weeks of life. Biol Neonate 1991:59:1-4.