Polytene chromosomes: A general model for the eucaryotic interphase state

International Journal of Insect Morphology and Embryology

Volumn 25, Issue 1-2, 1996, Pages 63-91

  Kress, Horst ^a  

^a FREIE UNIVERSITÄT BERLIN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Chromatin; gene expression; replication; RNA processing; RNA transport; transcription

Indexed keywords

CHROMOSOME ANALYSIS; CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE; FLY; INSECT; NONHUMAN; POLYTENE CHROMOSOME; PROTEIN DNA INTERACTION; REVIEW; RNA PROCESSING;

EID: 0029684466     PISSN: 00207322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/0020-7322(95)00023-2     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Alfageme, C. R., G. T. Rudkin and L. H. Cohen. 1980. Isolation, properties and cellular distribution of D1, a chromosomal protein of Drosophila. Chromosoma 78: 1-31.
2. Alfert, M. 1955. Composition and structure of giant chromosomes. Int. Rev. Cytol. 3: 131-69.
3. Amero, S. A., S. C. R. Elgin and A. L. Beyer. 1991. A unique zinc finger protein is associated preferentially with active ecdysone-responsive loci in Drosophila. Genes Dev. 5: 188-200.
4. Amero, S. A., G. Raychaudhuri, C. L. Cass, W. J. van Venrooij, W. H. Habets, A. R. Krainer and A. L. Beyer. 1992. Independent deposition of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins and small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles at sites of transcription. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 8409-413.
5. Amero, S. A., M. J. Matunis, E. L. Matunis, J. W. Hockensmith, G. Raychaudhuri and A. L. Beyer. 1993. A unique ribonucleoprotein complex assembles preferentially on ecdysone-responsive sites in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13: 5323-30.
6. Ammermann, D., G. Steinbrück, L. von Berger and W. Hennig. 1974. The development of the macronucleus in the ciliated protozoan Stylonychia mytilus. Chromosoma 45: 401-29.
7. Ananiev, E. V. and V. E. Barsky. 1985. Elementary structures in polytene chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 93: 104-12.
8. Ananiev, E. V., V. E. Barsky, Y. V. Hyin and N. A. Churikov. 1981. Localization of nucleoli in Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes. Chromosoma 81: 619-28.
9. Ashburner, M. 1970. Function and structure of polytene chromosomes during insect development. Adv. Insect Physiol. 7: 1-95.
10. Ashburner, M. 1980. Some aspects of the structure and function of the polytene chromosomes of the Diptera, pp. 65-84. In R. L. Blackman, G. M. Hewitt and M. Ashburner (eds.) Insect Cytogenetics. Sympos. Royal Entomological Society, Number 10, London.
11. Ashburner, M., 1989. Drosophila: A Laboratory Handbook. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
12. Ashburner, M., C. Chihara, P. Meltzer and G. Richards. 1974. Temporal control of puffing activity in polytene chromosomes. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 38: 655-62.
13. Baurén, G. and L. Wieslander. 1994. Splicing of Balbiani Ring 1 gene pre-mRNA occurs simultaneously with transcription. Cell 76: 183-92.
14. Becker, H. J. 1959. Die Puffs der Speicheldrüsenchromosomen von Drosophila melanogaster. I: Beobachtungen zum Verhalten des Puffmusters im Normalstamm und bei zwei Mutanten, Giant und Lethalgiant Larvae. Chromosoma 10: 654-78.
15. Becker, H. J. 1962. Die Puffs der Speicheldrüsenchromosomen von Drosophila melanogaster. II. Die Auslösung der Puffbildung, ihre Spezifität und ihre Beziehung zur Funktion der Ringdrüse. Chromosoma 13: 341-84.
16. Beermann, W. 1952. Chromomerenkonstanz und spezifische Modifikationen der Chromosomenstruktur in der Entwicklung und Organdifferenzierung von Chironomus tentans. Chromosoma 5: 139-98.
17. Beermann, W. 1959. Chromosomal differentiation in insects, pp. 83-103. In D. Rudkin (ed.) Developmental Cytology. Ronald Press, New York.
18. Beermann, W. 1962. Riesenchromosomen. Protoplasmatologia VI/D. Springer-Verlag, Wien.
19. Beermann, W. (ed.) 1972. Developmental Studies on Giant Chromosomes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
20. Belyaeva, E. S., O. V. Demakova, G. H. Umbetova and I. F. Zhimulev. 1993. Cytogenetic and molecular aspects of position-effect variegation in Drosophila melanogaster. V. Heterochromatin-associated protein HP1 appears in euchromatic chromosomal regions that are inactivated as a result of position-effect variegation. Chromosoma 102: 583-90.
21. Berendes, H. D. 1965. Salivary gland function and chromosomal puffing patterns in Drosophila hydei. Chromosoma 17: 35-77.
22. Berendes, H. D. 1968. Factors involved in the expression of gene activity in polytene chromosomes. Chromosoma 24: 418-37.
23. Berendes, H. D. 1973. Synthetic activity of polytene chromosomes. Int. Rev. Cytol. 35: 61-116.
24. Bier, K. 1961. Über den Wechsel von polytäner und retikulärer Kernstruktur in den Nährzellen einiger Kalyptraten. Zool. Anz. 24: 298-304.
25. Björkroth, B., C. Ericsson, M. M. Lamb and B. Daneholt. 1988. Structure of the chromatin axis during transcription. Chromosoma 96: 333-40.
26. Blumenthal, A., H. Kriegstein and D. Hogness. 1973. The units of DNA replication in Drosophila melanogaster chromosomes. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 38: 205-23.
27. Bossy, B., L. M. C. Hall and P. Spierer. 1984. Genetic activity along 315 kb of the Drosophila chromosome. EMBO J. 3: 2537-41.
28. Boyd, L., E. O'Toole and C. S. Thummel. 1991. Patterns of E74A RNA and protein expression at the onset of metamorphosis in Drosophila. Development 112: 981-95.
29. Cartwright, I. L. and S. C. R. Elgin. 1988. Chromatin of active and inactive genes, pp. 283-300. In G. Kahl (ed.) Architecture of Eucaryotic Genes. VHC Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim.
30. Champlin, D. T., M. Frasch, H. Saumweber and J. T. Lis. 1991. Characterization of a Drosophila protein associated with boundaries of transcriptionally active chromatin. Genes Dev. 5: 1611-21.
31. Champlin, D. T. and J. T. Lis, 1994. Distribution of B52 within a chromosomal locus depends on the level of transcription. Mol. Biol. Cell 5: 71-9.
32. Clever, U. 1964. Actinomycin and puromycin: effects on sequential gene activation by ecdysone. Science (Wash., D.C.) 146: 794-95.
33. Clever, U. and P. Karlson. 1960. Induktion von Puff-Veränderungen in den Speicheldrüsen von Chironomus tentans durch Ecdyson. Exp. Cell Res. 20: 623-26.
34. Coverley, D. and R. A. Laskey. 1994. Regulation of eucaryotic DNA replication. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 63: 745-76.
35. Cremer, T., A. Kurz, R. Zirbel, S. Dietzel, B. Rinke, E. Schröck, M. R. Speicher, U. Mathieu, A. Jauch, P. Emmerich, H. Scherthan, T. Ried, C. Cremer and P. Lichter. 1993. Role of chromosome territories in the functional compartmentalization of the cell nucleus. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 58: 777-92.
36. Grouse, H. V. 1968. The role of ecdysone in DNA-puff formation and DNA synthesis in the polytene chromosomes of Sciara coprophila. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 61: 971-78.
37. Grouse, H. V. and H. G. Keyl. 1968. Extra replications in the "DNA-Puffs" of Sciara coprophila. Chromosoma 25: 357-64.
38. Crowley, T. E., P. H. Mathers and E. M. Meyerowitz. 1984. A trans-acting regulatory product necessary for expression of the Drosophila melanogaster 68C glue gene cluster. Cell 39: 149-56.
39. Daneholt, B. 1974. Transfer of genetic information in polytene cells. Int. Rev. Cytol. Suppl. 4: 417-62.
40. Daneholt, B. 1975. Transcription in polytene chromosomes. Cell 4: 1-9.
41. Dennhöfer, L. 1981. Complete replication of DNA in polytene nuclei of salivary glands of Drosophila melanogaster. Wilhelm Roux's Arch. 190: 237-40.
42. Dennhöfer, L. 1982. Cytophotometric DNA determinations and autoradiographic studies in salivary gland nuclei from larvae with different karyotypes in Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 86: 123-47.
43. Durinio, R. J. and P. H. O'Farrell. 1994. Developmental control of a G1-S transcriptional program in Drosophila. Development 120: 1503-15.
44. Edgar, B. A., D. A. Lehmann and P. H. O'Farrell. 1994. Transcriptional regulation of string (cdc25): A link between developmental programming and the cell cycle. Development 120: 3131-43.
45. Edgar, B. A. and P. H. O'Farrell. 1990. The three postblastoderm cell cycles of Drosophila embryogenesis are regulated in G2 by string. Cell 62: 469-80.
46. Eissenberg, J. C. and S. C. R. Elgin. 1991. Boundary functions in the control of gene expression. Trends Genet. 7: 335-40.
47. Epstein, H. 1992. Polycomb and friends. BioEssays 14: 411-13.
48. Ericsson, C., U. Grossbach, B. Björkroth and B. Daneholt. 1990. Presence of histone H1 on an active Balbiani Ring gene. Cell 60: 73-83.
49. Fleischmann, G., R. Filipski and S. C. R. Elgin. 1987. Isolation and distribution of a Drosophila protein preferentially associated with inactive regions of the genome. Chromosoma 95: 83-90.
50. Foe, V. E., G. M. Odell and B. A. Edgar. 1993. Mitosis and morphogenesis in the Drosophila embryo: Point and counterpoint, pp. 149-300. In M. Bate and A. M. Arias (eds) The Development of Drosophila melanogaster, Vol. I. Cold Spring Harbor Lab. Press, New York.
51. Franke, A., M. Decamillis, D. Zink, N. Cheng, H. W. Brock and R. Paro. 1992. Polycomb and polyhomeotic are constituents of a multimeric protein complex in chromatin of Drosophila melanogaster. EMBO J. 11: 2941-50.
52. Frasch, M. 1991. The maternally expressed Drosophila gene encoding the chromatin-binding protein BJ1 is a homolog of the vertebrate gene Regulator of Chromatin Condensation, RCC1. EMBO J. 10: 1225-36.
53. Frasch, M. and H. Saumweber. 1989. Two proteins from Drosophila nuclei are bound to chromatin and are detected in a series of puffs on polytene chromosomes. Chromosoma 97: 272-81.
54. Friedman, T. B., K. N. Owens, J. B. Burnett, A. O. Saura and L. L. Wallrath. 1991. The faint band/interband region 28C2 to 28C4-5(-) of the Drosophila melanogaster salivary gland polytene chromosomes is rich in transcripts. Mol. Gen. Genet. 226: 81-7.
55. Fuse, N., S. Hirose and S. Hayashi. 1994. Diploidy of Drosophila imaginal cells is maintained by a transcriptional repressor encoded by escargot. Genes Dev. 8: 2270-81.
56. Gabrusewycz-Garcia, N. 1975, pp. 257-67. In R. C. King (ed.) Handbook of Genetics. Plenum Press, New York.
57. Gall, J. G., E. H. Cohen and M. L. Polan. (1971). Repetitive DNA sequences in Drosophila. Chromosoma 33: 319-44.
58. Gatti, M. and S. Pimpinelli. 1992. Functional elements in Drosophila melanogaster heterochromatin. Annu. Rev. Genet. 26: 239-75.
59. Gaudecker, B. von. 1972. Der Strukturwandel der larvalen Speicheldrüse von Drosophila melanogaster. Z. Zellforsch. 127: 50-86.
60. Geitler, L. 1953. Endomitose und endomitotische Polyploidisierung. Protoplasmatologia VI/C. Springer, Wien.
61. Georgel, P., P. Ramain, A. Giangrande, G. Dretzen, G. Richards and M. Bellard. 1991. Sgs-3 chromatin structure and trans-activators: developmental and ecdysone induction of a glue enhancer-binding factor, GEBF-I, in Drosophila larvae. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11: 523-32.
62. Glaser, R. L., G. H. Karpen and A. C. Spradling. 1992. Replication forks are not found in a Drosophila minochromosome demonstrating a gradient of polytenization. Chromosoma 102: 15-9.
63. Hägele, K. 1970. DNS-Replikationsmuster der Speicheldrüsen-Chromosomen von Chironomiden. Chromosoma 31: 91-138.
64. 3H-Thymidin-Markierung während der Larvalentwicklung von Chironomus thummi piger. Chromosoma 39: 63-82.
65. Hammond, M. P. and C. D. Laird. 1985. Chromosome structure and DNA replication in nurse and follicle cells of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 91: 267-78.
66. Heichmann, K. A. and J. M. Roberts. 1994. Rules to replicate by. Cell 79: 557-62.
67. Heino, T. I. 1989. Polytene chromosomes from ovarian pseudonurse cells of the Drosophila melanogaster otu mutant I. Photographic map of chromosome 3. Chromosoma 97: 363-73.
68. Heino, T. I. 1994. Polytene chromosomes from ovarian pseudonurse cells of the Drosophila melanogaster otu mutant II. Photographic map of the X chromosome. Chromosoma 102: 4-15.
69. Hill, R. J., M. R. Mott, F. Watt, T. Fifis and P. A. Underwood. 1986. The localization of an Mr 74,000 major chromatin antigen on native salivary chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 94: 441-48.
70. Hill, R. J. and G. T. Rudkin. 1987. Polytene chromosomes: The status of the band-interband question. BioEssays 7: 35-40.
71. Hill, R. J., F. Watt, C. M. Wilson, T. Fifis, P. A. Underwood, G. Tribbick, H. M. Geysen and J. O. Thomas. 1989. Bands, interbands and puffs in native Drosophila polytene chromosomes are recognized by a monoclonal antibody to an epitope in the carboxy-terminal tail of histone H1. Chromosoma 98: 411-21.
72. Hill, R. J. and S. Whytock. 1993. Cytological structure of the native polytene salivary gland nucleus of Drosophila melanogaster: a microsurgical analysis. Chromosoma 102: 446-56.
73. Hiroaka, Y., J. S. Minden, J. R. Swedlow, J. W. Sedat and D. A. Agard. 1989. Focal points for chromosome condensation and decondensation revealed by three-dimensional in vivo time-lapse microscopy. Nature (Lond.) 342: 293-96.
74. Hochstrasser, M. 1987. Chromosome structure in four wild-type polytene tissues of Drosophila melanogaster. The 87A and 87C heat shock loci are induced unequally in the midgut in a manner dependent on growth temperature. Chromosoma 95: 197-208.
75. Hochstrasser, M., D. Mathog, Y. Gruenbaum, H. Saumweber and J. W. Sedat. 1986. Spatial organization of chromosomes in the salivary gland nuclei of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Cell Biol. 102: 112-23.
76. Hochstrasser, M. and J. W. Sedat. 1987a. Three-dimensional organization of Drosophila melanogaster interphase nuclei. I. tissue-specific aspects of polytene nuclear architecture. J. Cell Biol. 104: 1455-70.
77. Hochstrasser, M. and J. W. Sedat. 1987b. Three-dimensional organization of Drosophila melanogaster interphase nuclei. II. chromosome spatial organization and gene regulation. J. Cell Biol. 104: 1471-83.
78. Hofmann, A. and G. Korge. 1993. Polytene chromosomes in mutagenesis, pp. 115-149. In G. Obe (ed.) Advances in Mutagenesis Research, Vol. 4. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
79. Hozák, P., A. B. Hassan, D. A. Jackson and P. R. Cook. 1993. Visualization of replication factories attached to a nucleoskeleton. Cell 73: 361-73.
80. Ireland, R. and E. Berger. 1982. Synthesis of low molecular weight heat shock polypeptides stimulated by ecdysterone in a cultured Drosophila cell line. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79: 855-59.
81. Izquierdo, M. 1994. Ubiquitin genes and ubiquitin protein location in polytene chromosomes of Drosophila. Chromosoma 103: 193-97.
82. James, T. C., S. A. Amero and S. C. R. Elgin. 1988. Recent progress in the study of nonhistone chromosomal proteins, pp. 207-27. In G. Kahl (ed.) Architecture of Eucaryotic Genes. VHC Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim.
83. Judd, B. H., M. W. Shen and T. C. Kaufmann. 1972. The anatomy and function of a segment of the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 71: 139-56.
84. Kabisch, R. and E. K. F. Bautz. 1983. Differential distribution of RNA polymerase B and nonhistone chromosomal proteins in polytene chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. EMBO J. 2: 395-402.
85. Kalm, L. von, K. Crossgrove, D. von Seggern, G. M. Guild and S. K. Beckendorf. 1994. The Broad-Complex directly controls a tissue-specific response to the steroid hormone ecdysone at the onset of Drosophila metamorphosis. EMBO J. 13: 3505-16.
86. Karlson, P. 1963. New concepts on the mode of action of hormones. Persp. Biol. Med. 6: 203-14.
87. Karpen, G. H. and A. C. Spradling. 1990. Reduced DNA polytenization of a minochromosome region undergoing position-effect variegation in Drosophila. Cell 63: 97-107.
88. King, R. C., M. Bahns, R. Horowitz and P. Larramendi. 1978. A mutation affects female and male germ cells differentially in Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Diptera:Drosophilidae). Int. J. Insect Morphol. Embryol. 7: 359-75.
89. Knoblich, J. A., K. Sauer, L. Jones, H. Richardson, R. Saint and C. F. Lehner. 1994. Cycin E controls S phase progression and its down-regulation during Drosophila embryogenesis is required for the arrest of cell proliferation. Cell 77: 107-20.
90. Korge, G. 1977. Direct correlation between a chromosome puff and the synthesis of a larval saliva protein in Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 62: 155-74.
91. Korge, G. 1987. Polytene chromosomes, pp. 27-58. In W. Hennig (ed.) Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation, Vol. 14. Springer, Berlin.
92. Korge, G., I. Heide, M. Sehnert and A. Hofmann. 1990. Promoter is an important determinant of developmentally regulated puffing at the Sgs-4 locus of Drosophila melanogaster. Dev. Biol. 138: 324-37.
93. Kozlova, T. U., V. F. Semeshin, I. V. Tretyakova, E. B. Kokoza, V. Pirrotta, V. E. Grafodatskaya, E. S. Belyaeva and I. F. Zhimulev. 1994. Molecular and cytogenetical characterization of the 10A1-2 band and adjoining region in the Drosophila melanogaster polytene X chromosome. Genetics 136: 1063-73.
94. Kramer, J., Z. Zachar and P. M. Bingham. 1994. Nuclear pre-mRNA metabolism: Channels and tracks. Trends Cell Biol. 4: 35-7.
95. Kress, H. 1986. Stoffwechselaktivitäten und Transkriptionsmuster in den larvalen Speicheldrüsen von Drosophila virilis. Naturwissenschaften 73: 180-87.
96. Kress, H. 1993. The salivary gland chromosomes of Drosophila virilis: A cytological map, pattern of transcription and aspects of chromosome evolution. Chromosoma 102: 734-42.
97. Kress, H., E. M. Meyerowitz and N. Davidson. 1985. High resolution mapping of in situ hybridized biotinylated DNA to surface-spread Drosophila polytene chromosomes. Chromosoma 93: 113-22.
98. Kuo, C. H., H. Giloh, A. B. Blumenthal and J. W. Sedat. 1982. A library of monoclonal antibodies to nuclear proteins from Drosophila melanogaster embryos. Exp. Cell Res. 142: 141-54.
99. Kuroda, M. I., M. J. Kernan, R. Kreber, B. Ganetzky and B. S. Baker. 1991. The maleless protein associates with the X-chromosome to regulate dosage compensation in Drosophila. Cell 66: 935-47.
100. Kurzig-Dumke, U., D. Gundacker, M. Rentrop and E. Gateff. 1995. Tumor suppression in Drosophila is causally related to the function of the lethal(2)tumorous imaginal discs gene, a dnaJ homolog. Dev. Genet. 16: 64-76.
101. Laemmli, U. K., E. Käs, L. Poljak and Y. Adachi. 1992. Scaffold-associated regions: cis-acting determinants of chromatin structural loops and functional domains. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2: 275-85.
102. Laird, C. D. 1974. DNA of Drosophila chromosomes. Annu. Rev. Genet. 7: 177-203.
103. Laird, C. D. 1980. Structural paradox of polytene chromosomes. Cell 22: 869-74.
104. Lakhotia, S. C. 1974. EM autoradiographic studies on polytene nuclei of Drosophila melanogaster III. Localization of non-replicating chromatin in the chromocenter heterochromatin. Chromosoma 46: 145-59.
105. Lakhotia, S. C. 1984. Replication in Drosophila chromosomes XII. Reconfirmation of underreplication of heterochromatin in polytene nuclei by cytofluorometry. Chromosoma 89: 63-67.
106. Lakhotia, S. C. and P. Sinha. 1983. Replication in Drosophila chromosomes. X. Two kinds of active replicons in salivary gland polytene nuclei and their relation to chromosomal replication patterns. Chromosoma 88: 265-67.
107. Lakhotia, S. C. and P. K. Tiwari. 1984. Replication in Drosophila chromosomes XI. Differences in temporal order of replication in two polytene cell types in Drosophila nasuta. Chromosoma 89: 212-17.
108. Lamb, M. J. 1982. The DNA content of polytene nuclei in midgut and malpighian tubule cells of adult Drosophila melanogaster. Wilhelm Roux's Arch. 191: 381-84.
109. Lehmann, M. and G. Korge. 1995. Ecdysone regulation of the Drosophila Sgs-4 gene is mediated by the synergistic action of ecdysone receptor and SEBP 3. EMBO J. 14: 716-26.
110. Lehner, C. F. and P. H. O'Farrell. 1990. The roles of Drosophila cyclins A and B in mitotic control. Cell 61: 535-47.
111. LeMaire, M. F. and C. S. Thummel. 1990. Splicing precedes polyadenylation during Drosophila E74A transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10: 6059-63.
112. Liang, C. and S. A. Gerbi. 1994. Analysis of an origin of DNA amplification in Sciara coprophila by a novel three-dimensional gel method. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 1520-29.
113. Liang, C., J. D. Spitzer, H. S. Smith and S. A. Gerbi. 1993. Replication initiates at a confined region during DNA amplification in Sciara DNA puff II/9A. Genes Dev. 7: 1072-84.
114. Lifschytz, E. 1983. Sequence replication and banding organization in the polytene chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Mol. Biol. 164: 17-34.
115. Lima-de-Faria, A. 1983. Molecular Evolution and Organization of the Chromosome, pp. 17-25. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
116. Lönn, U. 1981. Double-stranded DNA with the size expected of replicons can be released from Chironomus polytene chromosomes. Chromosoma 81: 641-53.
117. Lönnroth, A., K. Alexciev, H. Mehlin, T. Wurtz, U. Skoglund and B. Daneholt. 1992. Demonstration of a 7-nm RNP fiber as the basic structural element in a premessenger RNP particle. Exp. Cell Res. 199: 292-96.
118. Manuelidis, L. and T. L. Chen. 1990. A unified model of eukaryotic chromosomes. Cytometry 11: 8-25.
119. Mathog, D., M. Hochstrasser, Y. Gruenbaum, H. Saumweber and J. Sedat. 1984. Characteristic folding patterns of polytene chromosomes in Drosophila salivary gland nuclei. Nature (Lond.) 308: 414-421.
120. Matunis, M. J., E. L. Matunis and G. Dreyfuss. 1992. Isolation of hnRNP complexes from Drosophila melanogaster. J. Cell Biol. 116: 245-55.
121. Matunis, E. L., M. J. Matunis and G. Dreyfuss. 1993. Association of individual hnRNP proteins and snRNPs with nascent transcripts. J. Cell Biol. 121: 219-28.
122. Mayfield, J. E. and J. R. Ellison. 1975. The organization of interphase chromatin in Drosophilidae. The self adhesion of chromatin containing the same DNA sequence. Chromosoma 52: 37-48.
123. Mehlin, H. and B. Daneholt. 1993. The Balbiani Ring particle: A model for the assembly and export of RNPs from the nucleus? Trends Cell Biol. 3: 443-47.
124. Meyerowitz, E. M., K. V. Raghavan, P. H. Mathers and M. Roark. 1987. How Drosophila larvae make glue: Control of Sgs-3 gene expression. Trends Genet. 3: 288-93.
125. Mirkovitch, J., S. M. Gasser and U. K. Laemmli. 1987. Relation of chromosome structure and gene expression. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 317: 563-74.
126. Mohr, E., L. Trieschmann and U. Grossbach. 1989. Histone H1 in two subspecies of Chironomus thummi with different genome sizes: Homologous chromosome sites differ largely in their content of a specific H1 variant. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 9308-12.
127. cdc2: In vivo veritas? Cell 61: 549-51.
128. + gene. Nature (Lond.) 367: 236-42.
129. Mott, M. R. and R. J. Hill. 1986. The ultrastructural morphology of native salivary gland chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster: the band-interband question. Chromosoma 94: 403-11.
130. Mukherjee, A. S., S. K. Banerjee, I. Banerjee, G. Chaudhuri, S. Banerjee and P. Ghosh. 1989. Replication of eucaryotic genome: Different levels of regulation of DNA replication in Drosophila. Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutta 40: 1-11.
131. Mukherjee, A. S., A. K. Duttagupta, S. N. Chatterjee, R. N. Chatterjee, M. Ghosh, P. M. Achary, A. Dey and I. Banerjee. 1980. Regulation of DNA replication in Drosophila, pp. 57-83. In O. Siddiqui, P. Babu, L. M. Hall and J. C. Hall (eds.) Development and Neurobiology of Drosophila. Plenum Press, New York.
132. Mutsiddi, M., D. Mutsiddi, A. S. Mukherjee and A. K. Duttagupta. 1984. Conserved autonomy of replication of the C-chromosomes in hybrids of Drosophila miranda and Drosophila persimilis. Chromosoma 89: 55-62.
133. Nagl, W. 1978. Endopolyploidy and Polyteny in Differentiation and Evolution. North-Holland, Amsterdam.
134. Nagl, W. 1981. Polytene chromosomes of plants. Int. Rev. Cytol. 73: 21-53.
135. Nazimiec, M. and K. Beckingham. 1986. 3B55: A repititious sequence family which is transcribed and proportionally replicated in germ-line polyploid nuclei of Calliphora erythrocephala. Dev. Biol. 115: 398-406.
136. Nurse, P. 1990. Universal control mechanism regulating onset of M-phase. Nature (Lond.) 44: 503-06.
137. Orr-Weaver, T. L. 1991. Drosophila chorion genes: Cracking the eggshell's secrets. BioEssays 13: 97-105.
138. Pelling, C. 1955. Ribonukleinsäuresynthese der Riesenchromosomen. Autoradiographische Untersuchungen an Chironomus tentans. Chromosoma 15: 71-122.
139. Ramain, P., A. Giangrande, G. Richards and M. Bellard. 1988. Analysis of a DNase I-hypersensitive site in transgenic Drosophila reveals a key regulatory element of Sgs-3. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 2718-22.
140. Redfern, C. P. F. 1981a. Homologous banding patterns in the polytene chromosomes from the larval salivary glands and ovarian nurse cells of Anopheles stephensi Liston (Culicidae). Chromosoma 83: 221-40.
141. Redfern, C. P. F. 1981b. DNA replication in polytene chromosomes: Similarity of termination patterns in somatic and germ-line derived polytene chromosomes of Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Chromosoma 84: 33-47.
142. Requena, J. M., P. Arias, F. Lancillotti, M. C. Lopez and C. Alonso. 1987. Organizacion estructural y de la transcripcion en chromosomas politenicos de Drosophila hydei. Evol. Biol. 1: 129-60.
143. Reuter, G., M. Giarre, J. Farah, J. Gausz, A. Spierer and P. Spierer. 1990. Dependence of positions-effect variegation in Drosophila on dose of a gene encoding an unusual zinc-finger protein. Nature (Lond.) 344: 219-23.
144. Ribbert, D. 1967. Die Polytänchromosomen der Borstenbildungszellen von Calliphora erythrocephala unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der geschlechtsgebundenen Strukturheterozygotie und des Puffmusters während der Metamorphose. Chromosoma 21: 296-344.
145. Ribbert, D. 1979. Chromomeres and puffing in experimentally induced polytene chromosomes of Calliphora erythrocephala. Chromosoma 74: 269-98.
146. Richards, G. 1980. The polytene chromosomes in the fat body nuclei of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 79: 241-50.
147. Richards, G. 1985. Polytene chromosomes, pp. 255-300. In G. A. Kerkut and L. I. Gilbert (eds.) Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Vol. 2. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
148. Ring, H. Z. and J. T. Lis. 1994. The SR protein B52/SRp55 is essential for Drosophila development. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 7499-506.
149. Ritossa, F. 1962. A new puffing pattern induced by heat shock and DNA in Drosophila. Experientia 18: 571-73.
150. Roark, M., K. V. Raghavan, T. Todo, C. A. Mayeda and E. M. Meyerowitz. 1990. Cooperative enhancement at the Drosophila Sgs-3 locus. Dev. Biol. 139: 121-33.
151. Rosbash, M. and R. Singer. 1993. RNA travel: Tracks from DNA to cytoplasm. Cell 75: 399-401.
152. Rovira, C., W. Beermann and J.-E. Edström. 1993. A repetitive DNA sequence associated with the centromeres of Chironomus pallidivittatus. Nucl. Acids Res. 21: 1775-81.
153. Rudkin, G. T. 1969. Non-replicating DNA in Drosophila. Genetics 61: (Suppl.) 227-38.
154. Rudkin, G. T. 1972. Replication in polytene chromosomes, pp. 59-85. In W. Beermann (ed.) Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation, Vol. 4, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
155. Rykowski, M. C., S. J. Parmelee, D. A. Agard and J. W. Sedat. 1988. Precise determination of the molecular limits of a polytene chromosome band: Regulatory sequences for the Notch gene are in the interband. Cell 54: 461-72.
156. Sass, H. 1984. Gene identification in polytene chromosomes: Some Balbiani Ring 2 gene sequences are located in an interband-like region of Chironomus tentans. Chromosoma 90: 20-5.
157. Sass, H. and E. K. F. Bautz. 1982. Immunoelectron microscopic localization of RNA polymerase B on isolated polytene chromosomes of Chironomus tentans. Chromosoma 85: 633-42.
158. Sass, H. and T. Pederson. 1984. Transcription-dependent localization of U1 and U2 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins at major sites of gene activity in polytene chromosomes. J. Mol. Biol. 180: 911-26.
159. Saumweber, H., M. Frasch and G. Korge. 1990. Two puff-specific proteins bind within the 2.5 kb upstream region of the Drosophila melanogaster Sgs-4 gene. Chromosoma 99: 52-60.
160. Saumweber, H., P. Symmons, R. Kabisch, H. Will and F. Bonhoeffer. 1980. Monoclonal antibodies against chromosomal proteins of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 80: 253-75.
161. Schulze, E., L. Trieschmann, B. Schulze, E. R. Schmidt, S. Pitzel, K. Zechel and U. Grossbach. 1993. Structural and functional differences between histone H1 sequence variants with differential intranuclear distribution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 2481-85.
162. Shemeshin, V. F., E. M. Baricheva, E. S. Belyaeva and I. F. Zhimulev. 1982. Electronmicroscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes. I. Mapping of the 87A and 87C heat shock puffs in development. Chromosoma 87: 229-37.
163. Shemeshin, V. F., E. M. Baricheva, E. S. Belyaeva and I. F. Zhimulev. 1985. Electron microscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes. III. Mapping of puffs developing from one band. Chromosoma 91: 234-50.
164. Shemeshin, V. F., S. A. Demakov, M. P. Alonso, E. S. Belyaeva, J. J. Bonner and I. F. Zhimulev. 1989. Electron microscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes V. Characteristics of structures formed by transposed DNA segments of mobile elements. Chromosoma 97: 396-412.
165. Shermoen, A. W. and S. K. Beckendorf. 1982. A complex of interacting DNAase I-hypersensitive sites near the Drosophila glue protein gene, Sgs4. Cell 29: 601-07.
166. Simon, J. A., C. A. Sutton, R. B. Lobell, R. L. Glaser and J. T. Lis. 1985. Determinants of heat shock-induced chromosome puffing. Cell 40: 805-17.
167. Sinha, P., A. Mishra and S. C. Lakhotia. 1987. Chromosomal organization of Drosophila tumors I. Polytene chromosome organization and DNA synthesis in ovarian pseudonurse cells in otu mutants of D. melanogaster. Chromosoma 95: 108-16.
168. Smith, A. V. and T. L. Orr-Weaver. 1991. The regulation of the cell cycle during Drosophila embryogenesis: The transition to polyteny. Development 112: 997-1008.
169. Sorsa, V. 1988. Polytene Chromosomes in Genetic Research. Ellis Horwood Limited, Chichester.
170. Spierer, P., A. Spierer, W. Bender and D. Hogness. 1983. Molecular mapping of genetic and chromomeric units in Drosophila melanogaster. J. Mol. Biol. 168: 35-50.
171. Spierer, A. and P. Spierer. 1984. Similar level of polyteny in bands and interbands of Drosophila giant chromosomes. Nature (Lond.) 307: 176-78.
172. Spradling, A. and T. Orr-Weaver. 1987. Regulation of DNA replication during Drosophila development. Annu. Rev. Genet. 21: 373-403.
173. Steinemann, M. 1981. Chromosomal replication in Drosophila virilis III. Organization of active origins in the highly polytene salivary gland cells. Chromosoma 82: 289-307.
174. Stern, B., G. Ried, N. J. Clegg, T. A. Grigliatti and C. F. Lehner. 1993. Genetic analysis of the Drosophila cdc2 homolog. Development 117: 219-32.
175. Stevens, B. J. and H. Swift. 1966. RNA transport from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in Chironomus salivary glands. J. Cell Biol. 31: 55-77.
176. Swida, U., L. Lucka and H. Kress. 1990. Glue protein genes in Drosophila virilis: Their organization, developmental control of transcription and specific mRNA degradation. Development 108: 269-80.
177. Thüroff, E., S. Stöven and H. Kress. 1992. Drosophila salivary glands exhibit a regional reprogramming of gene expression during the third larval instar. Mech. Dev. 37: 81-93.
178. Thummel, C. S. 1990. Puffs and gene regulation - molecular insights into the Drosophila ecdysone regulatory hierarchy. BioEssays 12: 561-68.
179. Turner, B. M., A. J. Birley and J. Lavender. 1992. Histone H4 isoforms acetylated at specific residues define individual chromosomes and chromatin domains in Drosophila polytene nuclei. Cell 69: 375-84.
180. Udvardy, A., E. Maine and P. Schedl. 1985. The 87A7 chromomere, Identification of novel chromatin structures flanking the heat shock locus that may define the boundaries of higher order domains. J. Mol. Biol. 185: 341-58.
181. Udvardy, A. and P. Schedl. 1993. The dynamics of chromatin condensation: Redistribution of topoisomerase II in the 87A7 heat shock locus during induction and recovery. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13: 7522-30.
182. Vazquez-Nin, G. H., O. M. Echeverria, S. Fakan, G. Leser and T. E. Martin. 1990. Immunoelectron microscope localization of snRNPs in the polytene nucleus of salivary glands of Chironomus thummi. Chromosoma 99: 44-51.
183. Wagner, R. P., M. P. Maguire and R. L. Stallings. 1993. Chromosomes, A Synthesis. Wiley-Liss, New York.
184. Wallrath, L. L., Q. Lu, H. Granok and S. C. R. Elgin. 1993. Architectural variations of inducible eukaryotic promoters: Preset and remodeling chromatin structures. BioEssays 16: 165-69.
185. Weeks, J. R., S. E. Hardin, J. Shen, J. M. Lee and A. L. Greenleaf. 1993. Locus-specific variation in phosphorylation state of RNA potymerase II in vivo: Correlations with gene activity and transcript processing. Genes Dev. 7: 2329-44.
186. Whiteley, M., P. D. Noguchi, S. M. Sensabaugh, W. F. Odenwald and J. A. Kassis. 1992. The Drosophila gene escargot encodes a zinc-finger motif found in snail-related genes. Mech. Dev. 36: 117-27.
187. Widom, J. and A. Klug. 1985. Structure of the 300A chromatin filament: X-ray diffraction from oriented samples. Cell 43: 207-13.
188. Wieland, C., S. Mann, B. von Besser and H. Saumweber. 1992. The Drosophila nuclear protein Bx42, which is found in many puffs on polytene chromosomes, is highly charged. Chromosoma 101: 517-25.
189. Wisniewski, J. R. and E. Schulze. 1992. Insect proteins homologous to mammalian high mobility group protein 1. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 17170-77.
190. Wu, N., C. Liang, S. M. Dibartolomeis, H. S. Smith and S. A. Gerbi. 1993. Developmental progression of DNA puffs in Sciara coprophila: Amplification and transcription. Dev. Biol. 160: 73-84.
191. Xing, Y. and Lawrence, J. B. 1993. Nuclear RNA tracks: structural basis for transcription and splicing? Trends Cell Biol. 3: 346-53.
192. Young, M. W. and B. H. Judd. 1978. Nonessential sequences, genes and the polytene chromosome bands of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 88: 723-42.
193. Zachar, Z., J. Kramer, I. P. Mims and P. M. Bingham. 1993. Evidence for channeled diffusion of pre-mRNAs during nuclear RNA transport in metazoans. J. Cell Biol. 121: 729-42.
194. Zacharias, H. 1992. Larger nuclei in the larval brain of Drosophila nasutoides often show underreplication, whereas metaphases provide a reliable DNA standard. Genome 36: 294-301.
195. Zahler, A. M., W. S. Lane, J. A. Stolk and M. B. Roth. 1992. SR proteins: A conserved family of pre-mRNA splicing factors. Genes Dev. 6: 837-47.
196. Zegarelli-Schmidt, E. C. and R. Goodman. 1981. The Diptera as a model system in cell and molecular biology. Int. Rev. Cytol. 71: 245-363.
197. Zhimulev, I. F., E. S. Belyaeva and V. F. Semeshin. 1981. Informational content of polytene chromosome bands and puffs. CRC Critic. Rev. Biochem. 11: 303-40.
198. Zhimulev, I. F., V. F. Semeshin, V. A. Kulikchov and E. S. Belyaeva. 1982. Intercalary heterochromatin in Drosophila I. Localization and general characteristics. Chromosoma 87: 197-228.
199. Zink, B. and R. Paro. 1989. In vivo binding of a trans-regulator of homeotic genes in Drosophila melanogaster. Nature (Lond.) 337: 468-71.
200. Zirbel, R. M., U. R. Mathieu, A. Kurz, T. Cremer and P. Lichter. (1993). Evidence for a nuclear compartment of transcription and splicing located at chromosome domain boundaries. Chromosome Res. 1: 93-106.