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The atmospheric and oceanic models have a latitudinal spacing of 4.5°, and the longitudinal spacing is 3.75° in the oceanic model and 7.5° in the atmospheric model. The ocean has 12 vertical levels, and the atmosphere has nine. Simple models of sea ice and terrestrial heat and water budgets are also incorporated. The two GCMs were initialized independently using seasonal solar insolation and observed ocean surface temperature and salinity to force them until a steady-state was achieved. We minimized the drift that occurs upon coupling the models by adjusting the fluxes of heat and water by an amount that varied with region and season but remained constant throughout the global warming scenarios [S. Manabe, R. J. Stouffer, M. J. Spelman, K. Bryan, J. Clim. 4, 785 (1991)].
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note
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We thank R. Stouffer for assisting us in implementing the coupled model, and both him and S. Manabe for their enthusiastic support and comments on the manuscript. The carbon cycle model was developed by R. Murnane, and both he and R. Slater provided important help interpreting the results. R. Toggweller, D. Baker, and D. Harvey provided helpful comments on the manuscript. T. Hughes helped analyze the results. We thank J. Mahlman for his comments and the support that the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory has provided for our research over a period of many years through the ocean group headed by R. Toggweiler. Additional support was provided by grants from the NOAA Office of Global Programs, the National Science Foundation, and the Department of Energy.
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