Beta-adrenergic receptors and their regulation

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 152, Issue 3, 1995, Pages 838-860

  Barnes, Peter J ^a  

^a NATIONAL HEART AND LUNG INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

3 ISOPROPYLAMINO 1 (7 METHYL 4 INDANYLOXY) 2 BUTANOL; 4 (3 TERT BUTYLAMINO 2 HYDROXYPROPOXY) 2 BENZIMIDAZOLONE; 4 [2 [[2 (3 CHLOROPHENYL) 2 HYDROXYETHYL]AMINO]PROPYL]PHENOXYACETIC ACID; 5 [2 [[2 HYDROXY 3 [4 (1 METHYL 4 TRIFLUOROMETHYL 2 IMIDAZOLYL)PHENOXY]PROPYL]AMINO]ETHOXY]SALICYLAMIDE; ADRENALIN; ATENOLOL; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BETA 3 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BISOPROLOL; BRONCHODILATING AGENT; BUTOXAMINE; CYCLIC AMP; CYCLIC AMP DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE; CYCLIC AMP RESPONSIVE ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 2; ISOPRENALINE; KETOTIFEN; MUSCARINIC RECEPTOR; NEDOCROMIL SODIUM; POTASSIUM CHANNEL; PROCATEROL; PROTEIN KINASE C; SALBUTAMOL; SALMETEROL; SR 58894; TERBUTALINE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; XAMOTEROL;

AGING; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ASTHMA; BREATHING MUSCLE; BRONCHODILATATION; BRONCHOSPASM; DRUG MECHANISM; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; HYPOKALEMIA; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LIGAND BINDING; LUNG RECEPTOR; NEBULIZATION; NONHUMAN; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PHOSPHOINOSITIDE METABOLISM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECEPTOR DENSITY; RECEPTOR DOWN REGULATION; RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM; RESPIRATORY NERVE CELL; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFLAMMATION; REVIEW; TREMOR;

EID: 0029127470     PISSN: 1073449X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.3.7663795     Document Type: Review

References (274)

1. 1-adrenergic receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:7920-7924.
2. Dixon, R. A. P., B. K. Kobilka, D. Strader, and J. L. Benovic. 1986. Cloning of the gene and cDNA for mammalian β-adrenergic receptor and homology with rhodopsin. Nature 321:75-79.
3. Chung, F.-Z., K.-U. Lentes, J. Gocayne, M. Fitzgerald, D. Robinson, A. R. Kerlavage, C. M. Fraser, and J. C. Venter. 1987. Cloning and sequence analysis of the human brain β-adrenergic receptor. FEBS Lett. 211:200-206.
4. 3-adrenergic receptor. Science 245:1118-1121.
5. 2-adrenergic receptor: how structure elucidates function. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 32:167-183.
6. 3-adrenergic receptor mRNA in man. J. Clin. Invest. 91:344-349.
7. Fraser, C. M. 1989. Site-directed mutagenesis of β-adrenergic receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 264:9266-9270.
8. Strader, C. D., I. S. Sigal, and R. A. F. Dixon. 1989. Structural basis of β-adrenergic receptor function. FASEB J. 3:1825-1832.
9. Fraser, C. M., F.-Z. Chung, C.-D. Wang, and J. C. Venter. 1988. Site-directed mutagenesis of human β-adrenergic receptors: substitution of aspartic acid-130 by asparagine produces a receptor with high-affinity agonist binding that is uncoupled for adenylate cyclase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5478-5482.
10. Dixon, R. A. F., I. S. Sigal, E. Rands, R. B. Register, M. R. Candelore, A. D. Blake, and C. D. Strader. 1987. Ligand binding to the β-adrenergic receptor involves its rhodopsin-like core. Nature 326:73-77.
11. Chung F.-Z., C.-D. Wang, P. C. Potter, J. C. Venter, and C. M. Fraser. 1988. Site-directed mutagenesis and continuous expression of human β-adrenergic receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 263:4052-4055.
12. Tota, M. R., and C. D. Strader. 1990. Characterization of the binding domain of the β-adrenergic receptor with the fluorescent antagonist carazolol. J. Biol. Chem. 265:16891-16897.
13. 2-adrenergic receptors: delineation of domains involved in effector coupling and ligand specificity. Science 240:1310-1316.
14. Niais, A. T., M. J. Sumner, M. Johnson, and R. A. Coleman. 1993. Investigations into factors determining duration of action of the β-adrenoceptor agonist salmeterol. Br. J. Pharmacol. 108:507-515.
15. Anderson, G. P., A. Linden, and K. F. Rabe. 1994. Why are long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists long acting? Eur. Respir. J. 7:569-578.
16. 2-adrenergic receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 263:15985-15992.
17. Samama, P., S. Cotecchia, T. Costa, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1993. A mutation induced activated state of the β-adrenergic receptor: extending the ternary complex model. J. Biol. Chem. 268:4625-4636.
18. 2-adrenoceptor messenger RNA in human and rat lung using in situ hybridization: correlation with receptor autoradiography. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 206:133-138.
19. 2-adrenergic receptor mRNA in peripheral lung in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 8:325-333.
20. Mak, J. C. W., M. Nishikawa, and P. J. Barnes. 1994. Localization of β-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in human lung. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149(Suppl.):1027.
21. Carstairs, J. R., A. J. Nimmo, and P. J. Barnes. 1985. Autoradiographic visualization of beta-adrenoceptor subtype in human lung. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 132:541-547.
22. 3 adrenergic receptor mRNA expression in adipose and other metabolic tissues in the adult human. Molec. Pharmacol. 43:343-348.
23. Giembycz, M. A., and D. Raeburn. 1991. Putative substrates for cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases and the control of airway smooth muscle tone. J. Auton. Pharmacol. 166:365-368.
24. +-channel activity in tracheal myocytes by phosphorylation. Nature 341:152-154.
25. Torphy, T. J. 1994. β-Adrenoceptors, cAMP and airway smooth muscle relaxation: challenges to the dogma. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 15: 370-374.
26. + channel inhibitor. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 225:697-706.
27. Jones, T. R., L. Charette, M. L. Garcia, and G. J. Kaczorowski. 1993. Interaction of iberiotoxin with β-adrenoceptor agonists and sodium nitroprusside on guinea pig trachea. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:1879-1884.
28. Miura, M., M. G. Belvisi, C. D. Stretton, M. H. Yacoub, and P. J. Barnes. 1992. Role of potassium channels in bronchodilator responses in human airways. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 146:132-136.
29. Kume, H., M. P. Graziano, and M. I. Kotlikoff. 1992. Stimulatory and inhibitory regulation of calcium-activated potassium channels by guanine nucleotide binding proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:11051-11055.
30. ca channels in airway smooth muscle by cAMP-dependent and -independent mechanisms. J. Clin. Invest. 93:371-379.
31. Yamamoto, K. R., G. A. Gonzales, W. H. Biggs, and M. R. Montminy. 1988. Phosphorylation-induced binding and transcriptional efficacy of nuclear factor CREB. Nature 334:494-498.
32. Chrivia, J. C., R. P. S. Kwok, N. Lamb, M. Hagiwara, M. R. Montminy, and R. H. Goodman. 1993. Phosphorylated CREB specifically binds to the nuclear factor CBP. Nature 365:855-859.
33. Foulkes, N. S., and P. Sassone-Cursi. 1992. More is better: activators and repressers from the same gene. Cell 68:411-441.
34. Peters, M. J., I. M. Adcock, C. R. Brown, and P. J. Barnes. 1993. β-Agonist inhibition of steroid-receptor DNA binding activity in human lung. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147:A772.
35. Peters, M. J., I. M. Adcock, C. R. Brown, and P. J. Barnes. 1995. β-Adrenoceptor agonists interfere with glucocorticoid receptor DNA binding in rat lung. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 289:275-281.
36. 2-adrenoceptor messenger RNA with prolonged in vivo infusion of isoprenaline. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 247:131-138.
37. 2-adrenergic receptor gene confers autoregulation by cAMP. J. Biol. Chem. 265: 19930-19935.
38. 1-adrenergic receptor 5′-flanking promoter region. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1172:171-174.
39. 3-adrenergic receptor expression via multiple cAMP response elements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:4490-4494.
40. Hummler, E., T. J. Cole, J. A. Blendy, R. Ganss, A. Aguzzi, W. Schmid, F. Beerman, and G. Schutz. 1994. Targeted mutation of the CREB gene: compensation within the CREB/ATF family of transcription factors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:5647-5661.
41. 2 muscarinic receptors inhibit isoproterenol-induced relaxation of canine airway smooth muscle. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 262:119-126.
42. 2 receptors do not participate in the functional antagonism between methacholine and isoprenaline in guinea pig tracheal smooth muscle. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 249:235-238.
43. 2 adrenoceptor stimulation inhibits histamine-stimulated inositol phospholipid hydrolysis in bovine tracheal smooth muscle. Br. J. Pharmacol. 95:1204-1212.
44. Pitcher, J., M. J. Lohse, J. Codina, M. G. Caron, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1992. Desensitization of the isolated β-adrenergic receptor β-adrenergic receptor kinase, cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C occurs in distinct molecular mechanisms. Biochemistry 31: 3193-3197.
45. sα) by protein kinase C. Biochem. J. 285:333-338.
46. Grandordy, B. M., J. C. W. Mak, and P. J. Barnes. 1994. Modulation of airway smooth muscle β-adrenoceptor function by a muscarinic agonist. Life Sci. 54:185-191.
47. Masquilier, D., and P. Sassone-Corsi. 1992. Transcriptional cross talk: nuclear factors CREM and CREB bind to AP-1 sites and inhibit activation by Jun. J. Biol. Chem. 267:22460-22466.
48. Imai, F., J. N. Minger, J. A. Mitchell, K. R. Yamamoto, and D. K. Granner. 1993. Glucocorticoid receptor-cAMP response element-binding protein interaction and the response of the phosphoenol-pyruvate carboxykinase gene to glucocorticoids. J. Biol. Chem. 268:5353-5356.
49. Adcock, I. M., C. R. Brown, C. M. Gelder, H. Shirasaki, M. J. Peters, and P. J. Barnes. 1995. The effects of glucocorticoids on transcription factor activation in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Am. J. Physiol. 37:C331-C338.
50. Barnes, P. J., C. B. Basbaum, J. A. Nadel, and J. M. Roberts. 1982. Localization of β-adrenoceptors in mammalian lung by light microscopic autoradiography. Nature 299:444-447.
51. Gatto, C., T. P. Green, M. G. Johnson, R. P. Marchessault, V. Seybold, and D. E. Johnson. 1987. Localization of quantitative changes in pulmonary beta-receptors in ovalbumin-sensitized guinea pigs. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 136:150-154.
52. Carstairs, J. R., A. J. Nimmo, and P. J. Barnes. 1984. Autoradiographic localisation of beta-adrenoceptors in human lung. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 103:189-190.
53. Spina, D., P. J. Rigby, J. W. Paterson, and R. G. Goldie. 1989. Autoradiographic localization of beta-adrenoceptors in asthmatic human lung. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 140:1410-1415.
54. 3H]formoterol binding sites in lung: characterization and autoradiographic mapping. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 269:35-41.
55. Nishikawa, M., J. C. W. Mak, H. Shirasaki, S. E. Harding, and P. J. Barnes. 1994. Long-term exposure to norepinephrine results in down-regulation and reduced mRNA expression of pulmonary β-adrenergic receptors in guinea pigs. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 10:91-99.
56. Barnes, P. J., J. A. Nadel, B.-E. Skoogh, and J. M. Roberts. 1983. Characterization of beta-adrenoceptor subtypes in canine airway smooth muscle by radioligand binding and physiological responses. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 225:456-461.
57. Goldie, R. G., J. W. Paterson, D. Spina, and J. L. Wale. 1984. Classification of β-adrenoceptors in human isolated bronchus. Br. J. Pharmacol. 81:611-615.
58. Niais, A. T., R. A. Coleman, M. Johnson, H. Magnussen, R. F. Rabe, and C. J. Vardey. 1993. Effect of β-adrenoceptor agonists in human bronchial smooth muscle. Br. J. Pharmacol. 110:1112-1126.
59. 3-adrenoceptor) mediated relaxation of canine isolated bronchial smooth muscle. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:297-302.
60. 3-Adrenoceptor agonists BRL 37344 and SR 58611A do not induce relaxation of human, sheep and guinea-pig airway smooth muscle in vitro. Eur. Resp. J. 7:1610-1615.
61. Torphy, T. J., G. A. Rinard, M. G. Rietola, and S. E. Mayer. 1983. Functional antagonism in canine tracheal smooth muscle: inhibition by methacholine of the mechanical and biochemical responses to isoproterenol. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 227:694-699.
62. Gerthoffer, U. T., 1986. Calcium dependence of myosin phosphorylation and airway smooth muscle contraction and relaxation. Am. J. Physiol. 250:C597-C604.
63. Madison, J. M., and J. K. Brown. 1988. Differential inhibitory effects of forskolin, isoproterenol and dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate on phosphoinositide hydrolysis in canine tracheal smooth muscle. J. Clin. Invest. 82:1462-1465.
64. Twort, C. A. C., and C. van Breemen. 1989. Human airway smooth muscle in cell culture: control of the intracellular calcium store. Pulm. Pharmacol. 2:45-53.
65. Gunst, S. J., and J. Q. Stropp. 1988. Effect of Na-K adenosine triphosphatase activity on relaxation of canine tracheal smooth muscle. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:635-641.
66. Waldeck, B., and E. Widmark. 1985. Comparison of the effects of forskolin and isoprenaline on tracheal, cardiac and skeletal muscles from guinea-pig. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 112:349-353.
67. Stewart, A. G., P. R. Tomlinson, and J. Wilson. 1993. Airway wall remodelling in asthma: a novel target for the development of antiasthma drugs. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 14:275-278.
68. Hirst, S. J., P. J. Barnes, and C. H. L. Twort. 1992. Quantifying proliferation of cultured human and rabbit airway smooth muscle cells in response to serum and platelet-derived growth factor. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 7:574-581.
69. Noveral, J. P., and M. M. Grunstein. 1994. Adrenergic receptor mediated regulation of cultured rabbit airway smooth muscle proliferation. Am. J. Physiol. 11:L291-L299.
70. Tomlinson, P. R., J. Wilson, and A. G. Stewart. 1994. Inhibition by salbutamol of the proliferation of airway smooth muscle cells grown in culture. Br. J. Pharmacol. 111:641-647.
71. Young, P. G., S. J. M. Skinner, and P. N. Black. 1995. Effect of glucocorticoids and β-adrenoceptor agonists on the proliferation of airway smooth muscle. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 273:137-144.
72. Barnes, P. J. 1992. Modulation of neurotransmission in airways. Physiol. Rev. 72:699-729.
73. Baker, D. G., and U. Don. 1987. Catecholamines abolish vagal but not acetylcholine tone in the cat trachea. J. Appl. Physiol. 63: 2490-2498.
74. 1-adrenoceptors inhibit cholinergic neurotransmission in canine bronchi. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:785-790.
75. Ito, Y. 1988. Pre- and post-junctional actions of procaterol, a beta-adrenoceptor stimulant, on dog tracheal tissue. Br. J. Pharmacol. 95:268-274.
76. Janssen, L. J., and E. E. Daniel. 1991. Characterization of the prejunctional β-adrenoceptors in canine bronchial smooth muscle. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 254:741-749.
77. 2-Adrenoceptor stimulation inhibits ganglionic transmission in ferret trachea. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1:167-172.
78. 2-adrenoceptors. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:700-705.
79. 2-adrenoceptor stimulant, on neuroeffector transmission in human bronchial tissue. Respiration 58:163-166.
80. Bai, T. R., R. Lam, and F. Y. F. Prasad. 1989. Effects of adrenergic agonists and adenosine on cholinergic neurotransmission in human tracheal smooth muscle. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1:193-199.
81. Daniel, E. E., M. Kannan, C. Davis, and V. Posey-Daniel. 1986. Ultrastructural studies on the neuromuscular control of human tracheal and bronchial muscle. Respir. Physiol. 63:109-128.
82. Ind, P. W., C. M. S. Dixon, R. W. Fuller, and P. J. Barnes. 1989. Anticholinergic blockade of beta-blocker induced bronchoconstriction. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139:1390-1394.
83. Barnes, P. J. 1993. Muscarinic receptor subtypes in airways. Life Sci. 52:521-528.
84. Kamikawa, Y., and Y. Shimo. 1990. Inhibitory effects of catecholamines on cholinergically and non-cholinergically mediated contractions of guinea-pig isolated bronchial muscle. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 42:131-134.
85. 2-Adrenoceptors inhibit NANC neural bronchoconstrictor responses in vitro. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:1195-1199.
86. Itabashi, S., T. Aikawa, K. Sekizawa, H. Sasaki, and T. Takishima. 1992. Evidence that an atypical β-adrenoceptor mediates the prejunctional inhibition of non-adrenergic non-cholinergic contraction in guinea pig bronchi. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 218:187-190.
87. 3-adrenoceptor agonists SR 58611A and BRL 37344 and of salbutamol on cholinergic and NANC neural responses in guinea-pig main bronchi in vitro. Br. J. Pharmacol. 110:1311-1316.
88. 2-adrenergic and anticholinergic drugs. Thorax 45:694-698.
89. O'Connor, B. J., S. M. Ridge, P. J. Barnes, and R. W. Fuller. 1991. Comparative effect of terbutaline on mast cell and neurally mediated bronchoconstriction in asthma. Thorax 46:745P.
90. Ueki, I., V. German, and J. Nadel. 1980. Micropipette measurement of airway submucosal gland secretion: autonomic effects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 121:351-357.
91. Barnes, P. J., and C. B. Basbaum. 1983. Mapping of adrenergic receptors in the trachea by autoradiography. Exp. Lung Res. 5:183-192.
92. Davis, P. B., C. L. Silski, P. Kercomar, and M. Infeld. 1990. Beta-adrenergic receptors on human tracheal epithelial cells in primary culture. Am. J. Physiol. 258:C71-C76.
93. + channels in airway epithelium. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 52:115-135.
94. Knowles, M., G. Murray, J. Shallal, F. Askin, V. Ranga, J. Gatzy, and R. Boucher. 1984. Bioelectric properties and ion flow across excised human bronchi. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:868-877.
95. Sanderson, M. J., and E. R. Dirksen. 1989. Mechanosensitive and beta adrenergic control of ciliary beat frequency of mammalian respiratory tract cells in culture. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139:432-440.
96. Devalia, J. L., R. J. Sapsford, C. Rusznak, M. J. Toumbis, and R. J. Davies. 1992. The effects of salmeterol and salbutamol on ciliary beat frequency of cultured human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. Pulm. Pharmacol. 5:257-263.
97. Mortensen, J., S. Groth, P. Lange, and F. Hermansen. 1991. Effect of terbutaline on mucociliary clearance in asthmatic and healthy subjects after inhalation from a pressurized inhaler and a dry powder inhaler. Thorax 46:817-823.
98. Flavahan, N. A., L. L. Aarhus, T. J. Rimele, and P. M. Vanhoutte. 1985. Respiratory epithelium inhibits bronchial smooth muscle tone. J. Appl. Physiol. 58:834-838.
99. Barnes, P. J., F. M. Cuss, and J. B. Palmer. 1985. The effect of airway epithelium on smooth muscle contractility in bovine trachea. Br. J. Pharmacol. 86:685-691.
100. Gao, Y., and P. M. Vanhoutte. 1994. The epithelium acts as a modulator and a diffusion barrier in the responses of canine airway smooth muscle. J. Appl. Physiol. 76:1843-1847.
101. Tokuyama, K., H.-P. Kuo, J. A. L. Rohde, P. J. Barnes, and D. F. Rogers. 1990. Neural control of goblet cell secretion in guinea pig airways. Am. J. Physiol. 259:L108-L115.
102. Widdicombe, J. G., and R. J. Pack. 1982. The Clara cell. Eur. J. Respir. Dis. 63:202-220.
103. Devalia, J. L., and R. J. Davies. 1993. Airway epithelial cells and mediators of inflammation. Respir. Med. 6:405-408.
104. Massaro, G. D., C. M. Fischman, M. J. Chiang, C. Amado, and D. Massaro. 1981. Regulation of secretion in Clara cells: studies using the isolated perfused lung. J. Clin. Invest. 67:345-351.
105. Barker, J. A., A. J. Chediak, H. J. Baier, and A. Wanner. 1988. Tracheal mucosal blood flow responses to autonomic agonists. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:829-834.
106. Boschetto, P., N. M. Roberts, D. F. Rogers, and P. J. Barnes. 1989. The effect of antiasthma drugs on microvascular leak in guinea pig airways. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139:416-421.
107. Erjefält, I., and C. G. A. Persson. 1991. Pharmacologic control of plasma exudation into tracheobronchial airways. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 143:1008-1014.
108. Tokoyama, K., H.-P. Kuo, J. A. L. Rohde, P. J. Barnes, and D. F. Rogers. 1990. Neural control of goblet cell secretion in guinea-pig airways. Am. J. Physiol. 259:L108-L115.
109. 2 adrenoceptor agonists. Agents Actions 32:29-33.
110. Sulakvelidze, I., and D. M. McDonald. 1994. The anti-edema action of formoterol in rat trachea does not depend on capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:232-238.
111. Barnes, P. J., and S.-F. Liu. 1995. Regulation of pulmonary vascular tone. Physiol. Rev. 47:87-118.
112. 2-adrenoceptor gene transcription in rat type II pneumocytes. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147:A274.
113. Berthiaume, Y., N. C. Staub, and M. A. Mattay. 1987. Beta-adrenergic agonists increase lung liquid clearance in anesthetized sheep. J. Clin. Invest. 79:335-343.
114. Butchers, P. R., I. F. Skidmore, C. J. Vardey, and A. Wheeldon. 1980. Characterization of the receptor mediating antianaphylactic effects of beta-adrenoceptor agonists in human lung tissues in vitro. Br. J. Pharmacol. 71:663-667.
115. Peters, S. P., E. S. Schulman, R. P. Schleimer, D. W. MacGlashan, H. H. Newball, and L. M. Lichtenstein. 1982. Dispersed human lung mast cells: pharmacologic aspects and comparison with human lung tissue fragments. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 126:1034-1039.
116. Church, M. K., and J. Hiroi. 1987. Inhibition of IgE-dependent histamine release from human dispersed lung mast cells by anti-allergic drugs and salbutamol. Br. J. Pharmacol. 90:421-429.
117. Howarth, P. H., S. R. Durham, T. M. Lee, A. B. Kay, M. K. Church, and S. T. Holgate. 1985. Influence of albuterol, cromolyn sodium and ipratropium bromide on the airway and circulating mediator responses to allergen bronchial provocation in asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 132:986-992.
118. 4 excretion. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 89:575-583.
119. 2-agonists. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:1204-1208.
120. 2agonists. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150:381-387.
121. Cushley, M. J., S. T. Holgate. 1985. Adenosine induced bronchoconstriction in asthma: role of mast cell mediator release. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 75:272-278.
122. Björk, T., L. E. Gustafsson, and S.-E. Dahlén. 1992. Isolated bronchi from asthmatics are hyperresponsive to adenosine, which apparently acts indirectly by liberation of leukotrienes and histamine. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 145:1087-1091.
123. Yukawa, T., D. Ukena, P. Chanez, G. Dent, K. F. Chung, and P. J. Barnes. 1990. Beta-adrenergic receptors on eosinophils: binding and functional studies. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 141:1446-1452.
124. Dent, G., M. A. Giembycz, K. F. Rabe, P. M. Evans, and P. J. Barnes. 1994. Suppression of respiratory burst in human eosinophils by phosphodiesterase inhibitors: interaction with the β-receptor agonist albuterol. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 271:1167-1174.
125. 4. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 268:1339-1343.
126. Rabe, K. F., M. A. Giembycz, G. Dent, R. S. Perkins, P. Evans, and P. J. Barnes. 1993. Salmeterol is a competitive antagonist of β-adrenoceptors modulating inhibition of respiratory burst in guinea-pig eosinophils. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 231:305-308.
127. Kita, H., R. I. Abu-Ghazaleh, G. J. Gleich, and R. T. Abraham. 1991. Regulation of Ig-induced eosinophil degranulation by adenosine-3′5′-cyclic monophosphate. J. Immunol. 146:2712-2718.
128. 2-adrenergic receptors on human alveolar macrophages. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139:552-555.
129. Hjemdahl, P., K. Larsson, M. C. Johansson, A. Zetterlund, and A. Eklund. 1990. β-Adrenoceptors in human alveolar macrophages isolated by elutriation. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 30:673-682.
130. Fuller, R. W., G. O'Malley, A. J. Baker, and J. MacDermot. 1988. Human alveolar macrophage activation: inhibition by forskolin but not β-adrenoceptor stimulation or phosphodiesterase inhibition. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1:101-106.
131. Bachelet, M., D. Vincent, N. Havet, R. Marrash-Chahla, A. Pradalier, J. Dry, and B. B. Vargaftig. 1991. Reduced responsiveness of adenylate cyclase in alveolar macrophages from patients with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 88:322-328.
132. Seldon, P. M., P. J. Barnes, and M. A. Giembycz. 1994. Phosphodiesterase IV inhibitors and β-adrenoceptor agonists suppress lipopolysaccharide-induced tumour necrosis factor-α generation by human peripheral blood monocytes. Br. J. Pharmacol. 112:215P.
133. Conolly, M. E., and J. K. Greenacre. 1976. The lymphocyte β-adrenoceptor in normal subjects and patients with asthma: the effect of different forms of treatment on receptor function. J. Clin. Invest. 58:1307-1316.
134. Kariman, K. 1980. β-Adrenergic receptor binding in lymphocytes from patients with asthma. Lung 158:41-51.
135. Bishopric, N. H., H. J. Cohen, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1980. Beta adrenergic receptors in lymphocyte subpopulations. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 65:29-33.
136. Maisel, A. S., P. Fowler, A. Rearden, H. J. Motulsky, and M. C. Michel. 1989. A new method for isolation of human lymphocyte-subsets reveals differential regulation of β-adrenergic receptors by terbutaline treatment. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 46:429-439.
137. Didier, M., C. Aussel, B. Ferrua, and M. Fehlman. 1987. Regulation of interleukin-2 synthesis by cAMP in human T cells. J. Immunol. 139:1179-1184.
138. Feldman, R. D. 1987. β-Adrenergic receptor-mediated suppression of interleukin-2 receptors in human lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 139: 3355-3359.
139. Meurs, H., G. H. Koëter, K. De Vries, and H. F. Kauffman. 1982. The beta-adrenergic system and allergic bronchial asthma: changes in lymphocyte beta-adrenergic receptor number and adenylate cyclase activity after an allergen-induced attack. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 70:272-280.
140. Galant, S. P., L. Durisetti, S. Underwood, S. Allred, and P. A. Insel. 1980. Beta-adrenergic receptors of polymorphonuclear particulates in bronchial asthma. J. Clin. Invest. 65:577-585.
141. Busse, W. W., J. M. Sosman. 1984. Isoproterenol inhibition of isolated neutrophil function. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 73:404-410.
142. Barnes, P. J. 1993. Anti-inflammatory therapy for asthma. Ann. Rev. Med. 44:229-249.
143. 2-agonist, terbutaline, on airway inflammation in newly diagnosed asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 90:32-42.
144. Roberts, J. A., P. Bradding, A. F. Wallis, R. M. Britton, S. Wilson, S. T. Holgate, and P. H. Howarth. 1992. The influence of salmeterol xinafoate on mucosal inflammation in asthma (abstract). Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 145:A418.
145. Gardiner, P. V., C. Ward, H. Booth, A. Allison, D. J. Hendrick, and E. H. Walters. 1994. Effect of eight weeks of treatment with salmeterol on bronchoalveolar lavage inflammatory indices in asthmatics. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150:1006-1011.
146. 2-adrenergic receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 264:16786-16792.
147. Bouvier, M. W., A. Hausdorff, A. DeBlasi, B. F. O'Dowd, B. K. Kobilka, M. G. Caron, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1988. Removal of phosphorylation sites from the β-adrenergic receptor delays the onset of agonist-promoted desensitization. Nature 333:370-373.
148. Benovic, J. L., R. H. Strasser, K. Daniel, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1986. Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: identification of a novel protein kinase that phosphorylates the agonist-occupied form of the receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:2797-2801.
149. Inglese, J., N. J. Freedman, W. J. Koch, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1993. Structure and mechanism of the G protein-coupled receptor kinases. J. Biol. Chem. 268:23735-23738.
150. Koch, W. J., J. Inglese, W. C. Stone, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1993. The binding site for the beta gamma subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins on β-adrenergic receptor kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 268:8256-8260.
151. Loshe, M. J., J. L. Benovic, J. Codina, M. G. Caron, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1990. Beta arrestin: a protein that regulates beta-adrenergic receptor function. Science 248:1547-1550.
152. 2-adrenergic receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 268:3201-3208.
153. Kelsen, S. G., O. Anakwe, S. Zhou, J. Benovic, and M. Aksoy. 1994. Interleukins impair beta adrenergic receptor-adenyl cyclase system function in human airway epithelial cells (abstract). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:A479.
154. Hadcock, J. R., J. D. Port, M. S. Gelman, and C. C. Malbon. 1992. Cross-talk between tyrosine kinase and G protein-linked receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 267:26017-26022.
155. 2 adrenergic-receptor sequestration. J. Biol. Chem. 269:2790-2795.
156. Hadcock, J. R., H. Y. Wang, and C. C. Malbon. 1989. Agonist-induced destabilization of β-adrenergic receptor mRNA: attenuation of glucocorticoid-induced up-regulation of β-adrenergic receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 264:19928-19933.
157. Port, J. D., L.-Y. Huang, and C. C. Malbon. 1992. β-Adrenergic agonists that down-regulate receptor mRNA up-regulate a Mr 35,000 protein(s) that selectively binds to β-adrenergic receptor mRNAs. J. Biol. Chem. 267:24103-24108.
158. Huang, L. Y., B. G. Tholanikunnel, E. Vakalopoulou, and C. C. Malbon. 1993. The Mr 35,000 beta-adrenergic receptor mRNA binding protein induced by agonists requires both an AUUUA pentamer and U-rich domains for RNA recognition. J. Biol. Chem. 268:25769-25775.
159. Collins, S., M. G. Caron, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1992. From ligand binding to gene expression: new insights into the regulation of G-protein-coupled receptors. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 17:37-39.
160. 2-adrenergic receptors in Chinese hamster fibroblasts. Mol. Pharmacol. 41:542-551.
161. Tattersfield, A. E. 1985. Tolerance to beta-agonists. Clin. Respir. Physiol. 21:1S-5S.
162. 2-agonists. Drugs 47: 207-222.
163. Newnham, D. M., D. G. McDevitt, and B. J. Lipworth. 1994. Bronchodilator subsensitivity after chronic dosing with eformoterol in patients with asthma. Am. J. Med. 98:29-37.
164. Yates, D. H., M. Worsdell, H. Sussman, M. Shaw, P. J. Barnes, and K. F. Chung. 1995. Regular formoterol treatment in mild asthma: effect on bronchial reactivity during and after treatment (abstract). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:A272.
165. Hayes, M., F. Qing, C. G. Rhodes, P. W. Ind, T. Jones, J. M. B. Hughes. 1994. Human pulmonary β-adrenergic receptors are down-regulated by two weeks of β-agonist therapy. Thorax 49:1050P.
166. Sears, M. R., D. R. Taylor, C. G. Print, D. G. Lake, Q. Li, E. M. Flannery, D. M. Yates, M. K. Lucas, and G. P. Herbison. 1990. Regular inhaled beta-agonist treatment in bronchial asthma. Lancet 336:1391-1396.
167. Taylor, D. R., M. R. Sears, G. P. Herbison, E. M. Flannery, C. G. Print, D. C. Lake, D. M. Yates, M. K. Lucas, and Q. Li. 1993. Regular inhaled
168. Cockroft, D., C. P. McParland, S. A. Britto, V. A. Swystun, and C. Rutherford. 1993. Regular inhaled salbutamol and airway responsiveness to allergen. Lancet 342:833-837.
169. Cheung, D., M. C. Timmers, A. H. Zwinderman, E. H. Bel, J. H. Dijkman, and P. J. Sterk. 1992. The prolonged effects of salmeterol on airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 327: 1198-1203.
170. Ramage, L., B. J. Lipworth, C. G. Ingram, I. A. Cree, and D. P. Dhillon. 1994. Reduced protection against exercise-induced bronchoconstriction after chronic dosing with salmeterol. Respir. Med. 88:363-368.
171. Barnes, P. J. 1992. Molecular biology of receptors. Q. J. Med. 301: 339-353.
172. 2-adrenergic receptor and their promoter agonists. J. Biol. Chem. 262:7321-7327.
173. 2-adrenergic receptor: expression and promoter characterization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:6995-6999.
174. 2-adrenergic receptor gene are obligative for glucocorticoid regulation of hamster mRNA levels. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 154:676-681.
175. Davis, A. O., and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1984. Regulation of beta-adrenergic receptors by steroid hormones. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 46:119-130.
176. Hui, K. K. P., M. E. Conolly, and D. P. Tashkin. 1982. Reversal of human lymphocyte β-adrenoceptor desensitization by glucocorticoids. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 32:566-571.
177. 2-adrenoceptors: accelerated restoration of β-adrenoceptor responsiveness by prednisolone and ketotifen. J. Clin. Invest. 76:1096-1101.
178. Mano, K., A. Akbarzadeh, R. G. Townley. 1979. Effect of hydrocortisone on beta-adrenergic receptors in lung membranes. Life Sci. 25:1925-1930.
179. Fraser, C. M., and J. C. Venter. 1980. The synthesis of beta-adrenergic receptors in cultured human lung cells: induction by glucocorticoids. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 94:390-397.
180. Barnes, P. J., M. M. Jacobs, and J. M. Roberts. 1984. Glucocorticoids preferably increase fetal alveolar beta-receptors: autoradiographic evidence. Pediatric Res. 18:1191-1194.
181. Collins, S., M. G. Caron, and R. J. Lefkowitz. 1988. β-Adrenergic receptors in hamster smooth muscle cells are transcriptionally regulated by glucocorticoids. J. Biol. Chem. 263:9067-9070.
182. Hadcock, J. R., D. L. Williams, and C. C. Malbon. 1989. Physiological regulation at the level of mRNA: analysis of steady state levels of specific mRNAs by DNA-excess solution hybridization. Am. J. Physiol. 256:C457-C465.
183. 2-adrenergic receptor transcription in human lung. Am. J. Physiol. 12:L41-L46.
184. 2-adrenergic receptors in vivo. J. Clin. Invest. (In press)
185. 1-adrenergic receptor expression by-suppressing transcription of the receptor gene. Biochem. J. 302: 397-403.
186. Kioumis, I., D. Ukena, and P. J. Barnes. 1989. The effect of nedocromil sodium on down-regulation of pulmonary beta-receptors. Clin. Sci. 76:599-602.
187. Bretz, U., U. Martin, L. Mazzoni, and U. M. Ney. 1983. β-Adrenergic tachyphylaxis in the rat and its reversal and prevention by ketotifen. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 86:321-328.
188. Roberts, J. M., M. M. Jacobs, J. B. Cheng, P. J. Barnes, T. O'Brien, and P. J. Ballard. 1985. Fetal pulmonary β-adrenergic receptors: characterization in the human and in vitro modulation by glucocorticoids in the rabbit. Paediatr. Pulm. 1(Suppl.):S69-S76.
189. Takavanagi, I., M. Satom, N. Kokusa, and T. Kato. 1992. Beta-adrenoceptor density estimated in single cells from tracheal smooth muscle of guinea pigs of different ages. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 70:458-461.
190. Nijkamp, F. P., F. Engels, P. A. J. Henricks, and A. J. M. Oosterhout. 1992. Mechanisms of β-adrenergic receptor regulation in lung and its implication for physiological responses. Phys. Rev. 72:323-367.
191. Taki, F., K. Takagi, T. Satake, S, Sugiyama, and T. Ozawa. 1986. The role of phospholipase in reduced beta-adrenergic responsiveness in experimental asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 133:362-366.
192. Agrawal, D. K., and R. D. Townley. 1987. Effects of platelet activating factor on beta-adrenoceptors in human lung. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 193:1-6.
193. Barnes, P. J., B. M. Grandordy, C. P. Page, K. J. Rhoden, and D. N. Robertson. 1991. The effect of platelet activating factor on pulmonary beta-adrenoceptors. Br. J. Pharmacol. 90:709-715.
194. Raaijmakers, J. A. M., C. Beneker, E. C. G. van Geegen, T. M. N. Meisters, and P. Poven. 1989. Inflammatory mediators and β-receptor function. Agents Actions 26:45-47.
195. Folkerts, G., F. P. Nijkamp, and A. J. M. van Oosterholt. 1984. Induction in guinea pigs of airway hyperreactivity and decreased lung β-adrenoceptor number by 15-hydroxy-arachidonic acid. Br. J. Pharmacol. 80:597-599.
196. Engels, F., R. S. Costing, and F. P. Nijkamp. 1985. Pulmonary macrophages induce deterioration of guinea-pig tracheal β-adrenergic function through release of oxygen radicals. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 111:143-144.
197. Hall, I., and E. R. Chilvers. 1989. Inositol phosphates and airway smooth muscle. Pulm. Pharmacol. 2:113-120.
198. 1- and β-adrenergic receptors by protein kinase C and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 262:3106-3113.
199. Meurs, H., H. F. Kauffman, G. H. Koeter, A. Timmermans, and K. deVries. 1987. Regulation of beta-receptor-adenylate cyclase system in lymphocytes of allergic patients with asthma: possible role for protein kinase C in allergen-induced nonspecific refractoriness of adenylate cyclase. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 80:326-329.
200. Mardini, I. A., N. C. Higgins, S. Zhou, B. L. Benovic, and S. G. Kelsen. 1994. Functional behavior of the β-adrenergic receptor-adenyl cyclase system in rabbit airway epithelium. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 11:287-295.
201. Nakane, T., L. Szentendrei, L. Stern, M. Virmani, J. Seely, and G. Kunos. 1990. Effects of IL-1 and Cortisol on beta-adrenergic receptors, cell proliferation and differentiation in cultured human A549 lung tumor cells. J. Immunol. 145:260-266.
202. Szentendrei, T., C. Lazar-Wesley, T. Nakane, M. Virmani, and G. Kunos. 1992. Selective regulation of β-adrenergic receptor gene expression by interleukin-1 in cultured human lung tumor cells. J. Cell Physiol. 152:478-485.
203. van Oosterhout, A. J. M., W. B. Stam, and R. G. J. R. A. Vanderscheueren. 1992. The effects of cytokines on β-adrenoceptor function of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and guinea pig trachea. J. Allergy. Clin. Immunol. 90:304-308.
204. Wills-Karp, M., Y. Uchida, J. Y. Lee, J. Jinot, A. Hirata, and F. Hirata. 1993. Organ culture with proinflammatory cytokines reproduces impairment of the β-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxation in tracheas of a guinea pig antigen model. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 8:153-159.
205. Nogami, M., D. J. Romberger, S. I. Rennard, and M. L. Toews. 1994. TGF-β1 modules β-adrenergic receptor number and function in cultured human tracheal smooth muscle cells. Am. J. Physiol. 266: L187-L191.
206. Szentivanyi, A. 1968. The beta-adrenergic theory of the atopic abnormality in bronchial asthma. J. Allergy. 42:202-232.
207. Barnes, P. J. 1986. Neural control of human airways in health and disease. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 134:1289-1314.
208. Barnes, P. J. 1993. Beta-adrenoceptors and asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 23:165-167.
209. 2-adrenergic receptors in asthma: a current perspective. Lung 180:125-141.
210. Galant, S. P., L. Duriseti, S. Underwood, and P. A. Insel. 1978. De creased beta-adrenergic receptors on polymorphonuclear leukocyte after adrenergic therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 297:933-936.
211. Tashkin D. P., M. E. Conolly, R. I. Deutsch, K. K. Hui, M. Littner, P. Scarpace, and I. Abrass. 1982. Subsensitization of beta-adrenoceptors in airways and lymphocytes of healthy and asthmatic subjects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 125:185-193.
212. Shelhamer, J. H., D. D. Metcalfe, L. J. Smith, and M. Kaliner. 1980. Abnormal adrenergic responsiveness in allergic subjects: analysis of isoproterenol-induced cardiovascular and plasma cyclic adenosine monophosphate responses. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 66:52-61.
213. Brooks, S. M., K. McGowan, I. L. Bernstein, P. Altenau, and J. Peagler. 1979. Relationship between numbers of beta-adrenergic receptors in lymphocytes and disease severity in asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 63:401-406.
214. Gamboa, P. M., A. Oehling, M. L. Sanz, and J. G. Castillo. 1987. Decrease of beta-receptors in asthmatic and rhinitic patients. Allergol. Immunopathol. 15:65-68.
215. 2-adrenergic receptors: a possible cause of adrenergic hyperresponsiveness in allergic rhinitis and asthma. Science. 207:1361-1363.
216. Fraser, C. M., J. C. Venter, and M. Kaliner. 1981. Autonomic abnormalities and autoantibodies to adrenergic receptors. N. Engl. J. Med. 305:1165-1170.
217. Potter, P. C., L. van Lyk, D. White, B. S. Dakers, F. Z. Chung, and E. B. Dowdle. 1993. Absence of functional inhibition of cloned human beta-2 adrenergic receptors by autoantibodies in asthmatic subjects. Clin. Exp. Allergy 23:219-225.
218. Lentes, K. V., W. H. Berretini, M. R. Hoehe, F. Z. Chung, and E. S. Gershon. 1988. A biallelic DNA polymorphism of the human beta-2 adrenergic receptor detected by Ban-1 Adbr2. Nucleic Acids Res. 16:2359.
219. Potter, P. C., L. van Lyk, M. Martin, K. U. Lentes, and E. B. Dowdle. 1993. Genetic polymorphism of the beta-2 adrenergic receptor in atopic and nonatopic subjects. Clin. Exp. Allergy 23:225-232.
220. 2-adrenergic receptor in normal and asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 8:334-339.
221. 2-adrenergic receptor impart distinct agonist-promoted regulatory properties. Biochemistry. 33:9414-9419.
222. Marsh, D. G., J. D. Neely, D. R. Breazeale, and B. Ghosh. 1994. Linkage analysis of IL-4 and other chromosome 5q31.1 markers and total serum immunoglobulin E concentrations. Science 264:1152-1156.
223. Barnes, P. J., C. T. Dollery, and J. Macdermot. 1980. Increased pulmonary β-adrenergic receptors in experimental asthma. Nature 285: 569-571.
224. Engels, F., J. R. Carstairs, P. J. Barnes, and F. P. Nijkamp. 1989. Autoradiographic localization of changes in pulmonary β-adrenergic receptors in animal model of atopy. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 164:139-146.
225. Tobias, J. D., R. A. Sauder, and C. A. Hirshman. 1990. Reduced sensitivity to β-adrenergic agonists in Basenji greyhound dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 69:1212-1219.
226. Buckner, C. K., D. E. Clayton, A. A. Ain-Shoka, A. W. Busse, E. C. Dick, and P. Shult. 1991. Parainfluenza 3 infection blocks the ability of a beta adrenergic agonist to inhibit antigen-induced contraction in guinea pig isolated airway smooth muscle. J. Clin. Invest. 67:376-384.
227. Scarpace, P. J. and B. S. Bender. 1989. Viral pneumonia attenuates adenylate cyclase but not beta-adrenergic receptors in murine lung. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 140:1602-1606.
228. Goldle, R. G., D. Spina, P. J. Henry, K. M. Lulich, and J. W. Paterson. 1986. In vitro responsiveness of human asthmatic bronchus to carbachol, histamine, β-adrenoceptor agonists and theophylline. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 22:669-676.
229. Bai, T. R. 1991. Abnormalities in airway smooth muscle in fatal asthma: a comparison between trachea and bronchus. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 143:441-443.
230. Cerrina, J., M. L. Ladurie, C. Labat, B. Raffestin, A. Bayol, and C. Brink. 1986. Comparison of human bronchial muscle response to histamine in vivo with histamine and isoproterenol agonists in vitro. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 134:57-61.
231. De Jongste, J. C., H. Mons, I. L. Bonta, and K. F. Kerrebijn. 1987. Human asthmatic airway responses in vitro: a case report. Eur. J. Respir. Dis. 70:23-29.
232. Whicker, S. D., C. L. Armour, and J. L. Black. 1988. Responsiveness of bronchial smooth muscle from asthmatic patients to relaxant and contractile agonists. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1:25-31.
233. Sharma, R. K., and P. K. Jeffery. 1990. Airway β-adrenoceptor number in cystic fibrosis and asthma. Clin. Sci. 78:409-417.
234. Bai, T. R., J. C. W. Mak, and P. J. Barnes. 1992. A comparison of beta-adrenergic receptors and in vitro relaxant responses to isoproterenol in asthmatic airway smooth muscle. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 6:647-651.
235. Haddad, E.-B., M. Nishikawa, J. C. W. Mak, and P. J. Barnes. 1994. Autonomic receptors in peripheral lung from normal and asthmatic patients (abstract). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:A859.
236. Nelson, H. S., 1995. Beta-adrenergic bronchodilators. N. Engl. J. Med. (In press)
237. 2-agonist terbutaline with an inhaled steroid in newly detected asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:388-392.
238. Haahtela, T., M. Järvinen, T. Kava, K. Kiviranta, S. Koskinen, K. Lehtonen, K. Nikander, T. Persson, O. Selroos, A. Sovijäri, B. Stenius-Aarniala, T. Svahn, R. Tammivaara, and L. A. Laitinen. 1994. Effects of reducing or discontinuing inhaled budesonide in patients with mild asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 331:700-705.
239. Kelly, H. W., and S. Murphy. 1992. Beta-adrenergic agonists for acute severe asthma. Ann. Pharmacother. 26:81-91.
240. Juniper, E. F., I. R. Johnston, C. M. Borkhoff, G. H. Guyatt, and L. Boulet. 1995. Quality of life in asthma clinical trials: comparison of salmeterol and salbutamol. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151: 66-70.
241. Rabe, K. F., R. Jörres, D, Nowak, N. Behr, H. Magnussen. 1993. Comparison of the effects of salmeterol and formoterol on airway tone and responsiveness over 24 hours in bronchial asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147:1436-1441.
242. Ulrik, C. S., and A. Kok-Jensen. 1994. Different bronchodilating effect of salmeterol and formoterol in an adult asthmatic. Eur. Respir. J. 7:1003-1005.
243. Greening, A. P., P. W. Ind, M. Northfield, and G. Shaw. 1994. Added salmeterol versus higher-dose corticosteroid in asthma patients with symptoms on existing inhaled corlicosteroid. Lancet 344:219-224.
244. Woolcock, A., B. Lundback, O. L. N. Ringdal, and L. A. Jacques. 1994. Comparison of the effect of addition of salmeterol with doubling the inhaled steroid dose in asthmatic patients (abstract). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:A280.
245. Guillot, C., M. Fornaris, M. Badger, and J. Orehek. 1984. Spontaneous and provoked resistance to isoproterenol in isolated human bronchi. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 74:713-718.
246. Hasegawa, M., and R. G. Townley. 1983. Difference between lung and spleen susceptibility of beta-adrenergic receptors to densitization by terbutaline. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 71:230-238.
247. 2-Adrenoceptors in human lung and peripheral mononuclear leukocytes of untreated and terbutaline-treated patients. Chest 98:376-381.
248. Repscher, L. H., J. A. Anderson, R. U. Bush, C. J. Falliers, I. Kass, J. P. Kemp, C. Reed, S. Siegel, and D. R. Webb. 1984. Assessment of tachyphylaxis following prolonged therapy with asthma with inhaled albuterol aerosol. Chest 85:34-38.
249. Georgopoulos, D., D. Wong, and N. R. Anthonisen. 1990. Tolerance to beta-2 agonists in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 97:280-284.
250. Gibson, G. J., J. R. Greenacre, P. König, M. E. Conolly, and N. B. Pride. 1978. Use of exercise challenge to investigate possible tolerance to beta-adrenoceptor stimulation in asthma. Br. J. Dis. Chest 72:199-206.
251. Ullman, A., J. Hedner, and N. Svedmyr. 1990. Inhaled salmeterol and salbutamol in asthmatic patients: an evaluation of asthma symptoms and the possible development of tachyphylaxis. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 142:571-575.
252. Pearlman, D. S., P. Chervinsky, C. Laforce, J. M. Seltzer, D. L. Southern, J. P. Kemp, R. J. Dockhord, J. Grossman, R. F. Liddle, S. W. Yancey, D. M. Cocchetto, W. J. Alexander, and A. van As. 1992. A comparison of salmeterol with albuterol in the treatment of mildto-moderate asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:1420-1425.
253. Resten, S., K. R. Chapman, I. Broder, A. Cartier, R. H. Hyland, A. Knight, J.-L. Malo, J. A. Mazza, D. W. Moote, P. Small, S. Tarlo, L. Gontovnick, and A. S. Rebuck. 1991. A 3 month comparison of twice daily inhaled formoterol versus four times daily inhaled albuterol in the management of stable asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 144:622-625.
254. Booth, H., K. Fishwick, R. Harkawat, G. Devereux, D. J. Hendrick, E. H. Walters. 1993. Changes in methacholine-induced bronchoconstriction with the long-acting β-agonist salmeterol in mild to moderate asthmatic patients. Thorax 48:1121-1124.
255. Cockroft, D. W., P. M. O'Byrne, V. A. Swyston, and R. Bhagat. 1995. Albuterol inhaled regularly and the allergen-induced late asthmatic response. J. Allergy Clin, Immunol. (In press)
256. Gauvreau, G. M., R. M. Watson, M. Jordana, D. Cockroft, and P. M. O'Byrne. 1995. The effect of regular inhaled salbutamol on allergen-induced airway responsiveness and inflammatory cells in blood and induced sputum. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (In press)
257. Davies, R. J., C. J. Trigg, J. H. Wang, N. Manolistas, N. Macalvey, N. Jhalli, and S. Hamilton. 1993. Regular inhaled salbutamol may exacerbate bronchial inflammation in patients with mild asthma. Thorax 48:1060P.
258. Kerstjens, H. A. M., P. L. Brand, P. H. Quanjer, A. H. A. van der Bruggen-Bogarts, G. H. Köeter, and D. S. Postma. 1993. Variability of bronchodilator response and effects of inhaled corticosteroid treatment in obstructive airways disease. Thorax 48:722-729.
259. Yates, D. H., S. A. Kharitonov, M. Worsdell, D. M. Scott, and P. J. Barnes. 1995. Effect of regular inhaled budesonide on tolerance induced by salmeterol to the acute bronchoprotective effect of salbuterol (abstract). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:A40.
260. Crane, J., N. Pearce, A. Flatt, C. Burgess, R. Jackson, T. Kwong, M. Ball, and R. Beasley. 1989. Prescribed fenoterol and death from asthma in New Zealand. 1981-83: case-control study. Lancet i:917-922.
261. Pearce, N., R. Beasley, J. Crane, C. Burgess, and R. Jackson. 1995. fect of the New Zealand asthma mortality epidemic. Lancet 345: 41-44.
262. Spitzer, W. O., S. Suissa, P. Ernst, R. I. Horwitz, B. Habbcek, D. Cockroft, J.-F. Boivin, M. McNutt, A. S. Buist, and A. S. Rebuck. 1992. The use of β-agonists and the rate of death and near-death from asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 326:503-506.
263. Suissa, S., P. Ernst, J.-F. Boivin, R. I. Horwitz, B. Habbick, D. Cockroft, L. Biais, M. McNutt, A. S. Buist. and W. O. Spitzer. 1994. A cohort analysis of excess mortality in asthma due to use of inhaled β-agonists. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:604-610.
264. De Jong, J. W., J. P. Teengs, D. S. Postma, T. W. Van der Mark, G. H. Koëter, and J. G. R. de Monchy. 1994. Nedocromil sodium versus albuterol in the management of allergic asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:91-97.
265. Chapman, K. R., S. Kesten, and J. P. Szalai. 1994. Regular vs as-needed inhaled salbutamol in asthma control. Lancet 343:1379-1382.
266. Van Schayck, C. P., E. Dompeling, C. L. A. van Herwaarden, H. Folgering, A. L. M. Verbeek, H. J. M. van der Hoogen, and C. van Weel. 1991. Bronchodilator treatment in moderate asthma or chronic bronchitis: continuous or on demand? A randomised controlled study. B.M.J. 303:1426-1431.
267. Vathenen, A. S., A. J. Knox, B. G. Higgins, J. R. Britton, A. E. Tattersfield. 1988. Rebound increase in bronchial responsiveness after treatment with inhaled terbutaline. Lancet i:554-558.
268. 2-agonist treatment. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148:707-712.
269. 2-agonists in asthma. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 13:20-23.
270. Wang, Z.-L., A. M. Bramley, A. McNamara, P. D. Paré, and T. R. Bai. 1994. Chronic fenoterol exposure increases in vivo and in vitro airway responses in guinea pigs. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:960-965.
271. Stevens, D. A., P. J. Barnes, and I. M. Adcock. 1995. β-Agonists inhibit DNA binding of glucocorticoid receptors in human pulmonary and bronchial epithelial cells (abstract). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:A195.
272. 2-Agonist dose reduction: strategy and early results. Thorax 48:1066P.
273. Morell, F., R. Orkiols, J. de Gracia, V. Curul, and A. Pujol. 1992. Controlled trial of intravenous corticosteroids in severe acute asthma. Thorax 47:588-591.
274. Wong, C. S., I. Wamedna, I. D. Pavord, and A. E. Tattersfield. 1994. Effect of regular terbutaline and budesonide on bronchial reactivity to allergen challenge. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150:1268-1278.