Assessment and interpretation of aerobic fitness in children and adolescents

Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1994, Pages 435-476

  Armstrong, Neil ^a   Welsman, Joanne R ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LACTIC ACID; LACTIC ACID DERIVATIVE;

ADOLESCENT; ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD; BLOOD; CHILD; EXERCISE; FEMALE; FITNESS; HUMAN; MALE; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ADOLESCENT; ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD; CHILD; EXERCISE; FEMALE; HUMAN; LACTATES; LACTIC ACID; MALE; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PHYSICAL FITNESS;

EID: 0028187725     PISSN: 00916331     EISSN: 15383008     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1249/00003677-199401000-00016     Document Type: Article

References (230)

1. Alexander, R. McN., A. S. Jayes, G. M. O. Maloiy, and E. M. Wathuta. Allometry of the leg muscles of mammals. J. Zool. Lond. 194:539–552, 1981.
2. Andersen, K. L., V. Seliger, J. Rutenfranz, and J. Skrobak-Kaczvnski. Physical performance capacity of children in Norway. Part IV—The rate of growth in maximal aerobic power and the influence of improved physical education of children in a rural community. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 35:49–58, 1976.
3. Armstrong, N., J. Balding, P. Gentle, and B. Kirby. Patterns of physical activity among 11 to 16 year old British children. Br. Med. J. 301:203–205, 1990.
4. Armstrong, N., J. Balding, P. Gende, J. Williams, and B. Kirby. Peak oxygen uptake and habitual physical activity in 11 to 16 years old. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2:349–358, 1990.
5. Armstrong, N., and S. Bray. Physical activity patterns defined by heart rate monitoring. Arc’h. Dis. Child. 66:245–247, 1991.
6. Armstrong, N., and B. Davies. An ergometric analysis of age group swimmers. Br. J. Sports Med. 15:20–26, 1981.
7. Armstrong, N., J. Welsman, and B. Kirby. Daily physical activity estimated from continuous heart rate monitoring and laboratory indices of aerobic fitness in pre-adolescent children. Res. Exerc. Sport. 64: (Suppl) A24, 1993.
8. Armstrong, N., J. Williams, J. Balding, P. Gentle, and B. Kirby. The peak oxygen uptake of British children with reference to age, sex and sexual maturity. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:369–375, 1991.
9. Armstrong, N., J. Williams, J. Balding, P. Gende, and B. Kirby. Cardiopulmonary fitness, physical activity patterns, and selected coronary risk factor variables in 11- to 16-year-olds. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 3:219–228, 1991.
10. Armstrong, N., J. Williams, and D. Ringham. Peak oxygen uptake and progressive shutde run performance in boys aged 11–14 years. Br. J. Phys. Ed. Res. Suppl. 4:10–11, 1988.
11. Astrand, P.O. Experimental Studies of Physical Working Capacity in Relation to Sex and Age. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1952.
12. Astrand, P. O. Personal communication cited by R. J. Shephard (ed). Frontiers of Fitness. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1971, p 336.
13. Astrand, P. O. The child in sport and physical activity—physiology. J. G. Albinson and G. M. Andrew (ed). Child in Sport and Physical Activity. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1976, pp. 19–33.
14. Astrand, P. O., and K. Rodahl. Textbook of Work Physiology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986.
15. Atomi, Y., T. Fukunaga, H. Hatta, and Y. Yamamoto. Relationship between lactate threshold during running and relative gastrocnemius area. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:2343–2347, 1987.
16. 2max of trained and untrained boys relative to muscle mass and composition. J. Rutenfranz, R. Mocellin and F. Klimt (eds). Children and Exercise XII, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 53–58.
17. 2max and lactate threshold. Eur. I. Appl. Physiol. 55:156–161, 1986.
18. Bale, P. The physiological performance of pre-adolescent school children. Phys. Ed. Rev. 1:89–95, 1978.
19. Bale, P. Pre- and post-adolescents’ physiological response to exercise. Br. J. Sports Med. 15:246–249, 1981.
20. 2 in Hong Kong Chinese students. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 5:42–50, 1993.
21. Bar-Or, O. Pediatric Sports Medidne for the Practitioner. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1983.
22. Bar-Or, O. The growth and development of children’s physiologic and perceptional responses to exercise. J. Ilmarinen, I. Valimaki (eds). Children and Sport. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984, pp. 13–17.
23. Bar-Or, O. Trainability of the prepubescent child. Phys. Sports Med. 17:65–82, 1989.
24. Bell, R. D., J. D. MacDougall, R. Billeter, and H. Howald. Muscle fibre types and morphometric analysis of skeletal muscle in six-year-old children. Med. Sci. Sports 12:28–31, 1980.
25. Bergh, U., B. Sjodin, A. Forsberg, and J. Svedenhag. The relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake during running in humans. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23:205–211, 1991.
26. Beunen, G., and R. M. Malina. Growth and physical performance reladve to the timing of the adolescent spurt. Exerc. Sports Sci. Rev. 16:503–540, 1988.
27. Binkhorst, R. A., W. H. M. Saris, A. M. Noordeloos, M. A. Van’t Hof, and A. F. J. de Haan. Maximal oxygen consumption of children (6 to 18 years) predicted from maximal and submaximal values in treadmill and bicycle tests. J. Rutenfranz, R. Mocellin, and I. Klimt (eds). Children and. Exerdse XII. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 227–232.
28. Boileau, R. A., A. Bonen, V. H. Heyward, and B. H. Massey. Maximal aerobic capacity on the treadmill and bicycle ergometer of boys 11–14 years of age. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 17:153–162, 1977.
29. Brooks, G. A. Anaerobic threshold: review of the concept and directions for future research. Med Sci. Sports Exerc. 17:22–31, 1985.
30. Buono, M.J., J. J. Roby, F. G. Micale, and J. F. Sallis. Predicting maximal oxygen uptake in children: modification of the Astrand-Ryhming test. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 1:278–283, 1989.
31. Chan, O. L., M. T. Duncan, J. W. Sundsten, T. Thinakaran, M. N. B. C. Noh, and V. Klissouras. The maximum aerobic power of the Temiars. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 8:235–238, 1976.
32. Chatterjee, S., P. K. Baneijee, P. Chatterjee, and S. R. Maitra. Aerobic capacity of young girls. Indian J. Med Res. 69:327–333, 1979.
33. Clarke, D. H. Children and the research process. G. A. Stull and H. M. Eckert (eds). Effects of Physical Activity on Children. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 9–13.
34. Cooper, D. M. Development of the oxygen transport system in normal children. O. Bar-Or (ed). Advances in Pediatric Sports Sciences Vol 3. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1989, pp.67–100.
35. Cooper, D. M., D. Weiler-Ravell, B. J. Whipp, and K. Wasserman. Aerobic parameters of exercise as a function of body size during growth in children. J Appl. Physiol. 56:628–634,1984.
36. Cumming, G. R. Current levels of fitness. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 96:868–877, 1967.
37. Cumming, G. R. Personal communication cited by R. J. Shephard (ed). Frontiers of Fitness. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1971, p. 336.
38. Cumming, G. R., A. Goodwin, G. Baggley, and J. Antel. Repeated measurement of aerobic capacity during a week of intensive training at a youth’s track camp. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 45:805–811, 1967.
39. Cumming, G. R., L. Hastman, and J. McCort. TreEdmill endurance times, blood lactate, and exercise blood pressures in normal children. R. A. Binkhorst, H. C. G. Kemper and W. H. M. Saris (eds). Children and Exerdse XI. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1985, pp. 140–150.
40. Cumming, G. R., L. Hastman, J. McCort, and S. McCullough. High serum lactates do occur in children after maximal work. Int. J. Sports Med. 1:66–69, 1980.
41. Cunningham, D. A., and R. B. Eynon. The working capacity of young competitive swimmers 10–16 years of age. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 5:227–231, 1973.
42. Cunningham, D. A., B. MacFarlane, V. Waterschoot, D. H. Paterson, M. Lefcoe, and S. P. Sangal. Reliability and reproducibility of maximal oxygen uptake measurement in children. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 9:104–108, 1977.
43. Cunningham, D. A., D. H. Paterson, and C. J. R. Blimkie. The development of the cardiorespiratory system with growth and physical activity. R. A. Boileau (ed). Advances in Pediatric Sport Sciences Vol I. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1984, pp. 85–116.
44. Cunningham, D. A., B. Van Waterschoot, D. H. Paterson, M. Lefcoe, and S. P. Sangal. Reliability and reproducibility of maximum oxygen uptake measurements in children. Med. Sci. Sports 9:104–108, 1977.
45. Davies, C. T. M., C. Bames, and S. Godfrey. Body composition and maximal exercise performance in children. Hum. Biol. 44:195–214, 1972.
46. 2max and OBLA: a longitudinal study of two different age groups. Int. J. Sports Med. 5:167–173, 1984.
47. Dux, L., E. Dux, and F. Guba. Further data on the androgenic dependency of the skeletal musculature: the effect of prepubertal castration of the structural development of the skeletal muscles. Horm. Metab. Res. 14:191–194, 1982.
48. Dux, L., E. Dux, H. Mazareau, and F. Guba. A non-neural regulatory effect on the metabolic differentiation of the skeletal muscle. Effect of castration and testosterone administration on the skeletal muscles of the rat Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 64A: 177–183, 1979.
49. El-Sayed, M. S., K. P. George, D. Wilkinson, N. Mullen, R. Fenoglio, and J. Flannigan. Fingertip and venous blood lactate concentration in response to graded treadmill exercise. J Sports Sci. 11:139–143, 1993.
50. Eriksson, B. O. Physical training, oxygen supply and muscle metabolism in 11–13 year old boys. Acta Physiol. Scand. 384(Suppl.), 1972.
51. Eriksson, B. O., P. D. Gollnick, and B. Saltin. Muscle metabolism and enzyme activities after training in boys 11–13 years old. Acta Physiol. Scand. 87:485–497, 1973.
52. Eriksson, B. O., P. D. Gollnick, and B. Saltin. The effect of physical training on muscle enzyme activities and fibre composition in 11 year old boys. Acta Paediatr. Belg. 28(Suppl.) 245–252, 1974.
53. Eriksson, B. O., J. Karlsson, and B. Saltin. Muscle metabolites during exercise in pubertal boys. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 217(Suppl.):154–157, 1971.
54. Eriksson, B. O., B. Persson, and J. I. Thorell. The effects of repeated prolonged exercise on plasma growth hormone, insulin, glucose, free-fatty acids, glycerol, lactate and beta-hydroxybutyric acid in 13 year old boys and in adults. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 217 (Suppl.): 142–146, 1971.
55. Eriksson, B. O. and B. Saltin. Muscle metabolism during exercise in boys aged 11–16 years compared to adults. Acta. Paediatr. Belg. 28(Suppl.):257–265, 1974.
56. Eston, R. G., S. Robson, and E. Winter. A comparison of oxygen uptake during running in children and adults. J. Borins (ed). Kinanthropometry IV. London: E & F Spon, 1993, pp. 236–241.
57. Fahey, T. D., A. Del Valle-Zuris, G. Dehlsen, M. Trieb, and J. Seymour, Pubertal stage differences in hormonal and haematological responses to maximal exercise in males. J. Appl Physiol. 46:823–827, 1979.
58. Falgairette, G., M. Bedu, N. Fellmann, E. Van Praagh, J. F. Jarrige, and J. Coudert. Modifications of aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms in active boys during puberty. G. Beunen, J. Ghesquiere, T. Reybrouck and A. L. Claessens (eds). Children and Exercise. Suttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1990, pp. 42–49.
59. 2 during incremental exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:1551–1555, 1987.
60. Fellmann, N., M. Bedu, H. Spielvogel, G. Falgairette, E. Van Praagh, et al. Anaerobic metabolism during pubertal development at high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:1382–1386,1988.
61. Ferry, A., A. Duvallet, and M. Rieu. The effect of experimental protocol on the relationship between blood lactate and workload. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 28:341–347,1988.
62. Fournier, M.J., J. Ricci, A. W. Taylor, R. J. Ferguson, R. R. Montpetit, and B. R. Chaitman. Skeletal muscle adaptation in adolescent boys: sprint and endurance training and detraining. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 14:453–456, 1982.
63. Foxdal, P. B. Sjodin, H. Rudstan, C. Ostman, B. Ostman, and G. C. Hedenstierna. Lactate concentration differences in plasma, whole blood, capillary finger blood and erythrocytes during submaximal graded exercise in humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:218–222, 1990.
64. Freedson, P. S., and T. L. Goodman. Measurement of oxygen consumption. T. W. Rowland (ed). Pediatric laboratory Exercise Testing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1993, pp. 91–113.
65. Friedheim, L. C., and G. P. Town. Blood lactate methodologies compared. Med. Sci Sports Exerc. 21(Suppl.):S21, 1989.
66. Gaessar, G. A., and D. C. Poole. Lactate and ventilatory thresholds: disparity in time course of adaptations to training. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:999–1004, 1986.
67. Gaisl, G., and G. Weisspeiner. Training prescriptions for 9- to 17-year-old figure skaters based on lactate assessment in the laboratory and on the ice. J. Rutenfranz, R. Mocellin, and F. Klimt (eds). Children and Exerdse XII. Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 59–66.
68. Gisolfi, C., and S. Robinson. Venous blood distribution in the legs during intermittent treadmill work. J. Appl. Physiol. 29:368–373, 1970.
69. Glassford, R. C., G H. Y. Bayford, A. W. Sedgwick, and R. B. J. McNab. Comparison of maximal oxygen uptake values determined by predicted and actual methods. J Appl. Physiol. 20:509–513, 1965.
70. Goldstein, H. Efficient statistical modeling of longitudinal data. Ann. Hum. Biol. 13:129–141, 1986.
71. Gould, S. J. Allometry and size in ontogeny and phylogeny. Biol. Rev. 41:587–640, 1966.
72. Graham, T. E. The measurement and interpretation of lactate. H. Lollgen, and H. Mellerowicz (eds). Progress in Ergometry: Quality Control and Test Criteria. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984, pp. 51–65.
73. Hagberg, I. M. Physiological implications of lactate threshold. Int. I. Sports Med. 5 (Suppl): 106–109, 1984.
74. Hale, T., N. Armstrong, A. Hardman, P. Jakeman, C. Sharp, and E. Winter. Position Statement on the Physiological Assessment of the Elite Competitor. Leeds, UK: British Association of Sports Sciences, 1988.
75. Hamilton, P., and G. M. Andrew. Influence of growth and athletic training on heart and lung functions. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 36:27–38, 1976.
76. Haralambie, G. Skeletal muscle enzyme activities in female subjects of various ages. Bull. Eur. Physiopathol. Respir. 15:259–267, 1979.
77. Haralambie, G. Enzyme activities in skeletal muscle of 13–15 years old adolescents. Bull. Eur. Physiol. Res. 18:65–74, 1982.
78. Haralambie, G., and H. Reinartz. Human skeletal muscle enolase and factors influencing its activity. Enzyme. 23:404–409, 1978.
79. Haverty, M., W. L. Kenny, and J. L. Hodgson. Lactate and gas exchange responses to incremental and steady state running. Br. J. Sports Med. 2:51–54, 1988.
80. -1 lactate threshold. Int. J. Sports Med. 6:117–130, 1985.
81. Heusner, A. A. Mathematical expression of the effects of changes in body size on pulmonary function and structure. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 128:S72–S74, 1983.
82. Hill, A. V. Muscular Activity. London: Balliere, Tindall and Cox, 1925.
83. Hill, A. V., C. N. H. Long, and H. Lupton. Muscular exercise, lactic acid and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Parts IV–VIII. Proc. R Soc. Lond. B 97:84–138, 155–176, 1924.
84. Hoes, M., R. A. Binkhorst, A. Smeekes-Kuyl, and A. C. Vissurs. Measurement of forces exerted on a pedal crank during work on the bicycle ergometer at different loads. Int. Z. Angew. Physiol. 26:33–42, 1968.
85. Hohorst, H. J. L-(+) Lactate determination with lactic dehydrogenase and DPN. H. V. Bergmeyer (ed). Methods of Enzymatic Analysis. (2nd edition), New York: Academic Press, 1965, pp. 226–270.
86. Howell, M. L., and R. B. J. MacNab. The Physical Work Capadty of Canadian Children Aged 1 to 17. Toronto, Ont.: Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. 1968, pp. 125–135.
87. Hughes, E. F., S. C. Turner, and G. A. Brooks. Effects of glycogen depletion and pedalling speed on “anaerobic threshold.” J Appl. Physiol. 52:1598–1607, 1982.
88. Ivy, J. L., R. T. Withers, P. J. Van Handel, D. H. Eiger, and D. L. Costill. Muscle respiratory capacity and fibre type as determinants of the lactate threshold. J. Appl. Physiol. 48:523–527, 1980.
89. Izumi, I., and T. Ishiko. Lactate threshold in pubescent boys. Jpn. J. Phys. Ed. 28:309–314. (In Japanese), 1984.
90. 2 max and muscle enzymes to blood lactate during submaximal exercise. Br. J. Sports Med. 19:77–80, 1985.
91. Jones A. Peak aerobic power in intensively trained young athletes related to puberty. J. Sports Sci. (Abstract) 9:418–419, 1991.
92. Kanaley, J. A., and R. A. Boileau. The onset of the anaerobic threshold at three stages of physical maturity. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 28:367–374, 1988.
93. Karlsson, J., and I. Jacobs. Onset of blood lactate accumulation during muscular exercise as threshold concept. I. Theoretical considerations. Int. J. Sports Med. 3:190–201, 1982.
94. Karlsson, J., A. Holmgren, D. Linnarson, and H. Astrom. OBLA exercise stress testing in health and disease. H. Lollgen and H. Mellerowicz (eds). Progress in Ergometry: Quality Control and Test Criteria. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984, pp. 66–91.
95. Katch, V. L. Use of the oxygen/body weight ratio in correlational analyses: spurious correlations and statistical considerations. Med. Sci. Sports. 5:252–257, 1973.
96. Katch, F. I., F. N. Girandola, and V. L. Katch. The relationship of body weight to maximum oxygen uptake and heavy work endurance capacity on the bicycle ergometer. Med. Sci. Sports 3:101–106, 1971.
97. Katch, V. L., and F. I. Katch. Use of weight-adjusted oxygen uptake scores that avoid spurious correlation. Res. Q. 45:447–451, 1974.
98. Kay, C., and R. J. Shephard. On muscle strength and the threshold of anaerobic work. Int. Z. Angew. Physiol. 27:311–328, 1969.
99. Kemper, H. C. G. (ed). Growth, health and fitness of teenagers. Med. Sport Sci. 20:1–202,1985.
100. Kemper, H. C. G., and R. Verschuur. Maximal aerobic power in 13 and 14 year old teenagers in relation to biologic age. Int. J. Sports Med. 2:97–100, 1981.
101. Kemper, H. C. G., R. Verschuur, and L. deMey. Longitudinal changes of aerobic fitness in youth ages 12 to 23. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 1:257–270, 1989.
102. Keul, J., W. Kindermann, and G. Simon. Die aerobe und anaerobe Kapazitat als Grundlage fur die Leistungsdiagnostik. Ldslungssport. 8:22–32, 1978.
103. Kindermann, W., G. Simon, and J. Keul. The significance of the aerobic-anaerobic transition for the determination of work load intensities during endurance training. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 42:25–34, 1979.
104. Kobayashi, K, K. Kitamura, M. Miura, H. Sodeyama, Y. Murase, et al. Aerobic power as related to body growth and training in Japanese boys: a longitudinal study. J. Appl. Physiol. 44:666–672, 1978.
105. Koch, G. Muscle blood flow in prepubertal boys. J. Borms and M. Hebbelinck (eds). Medidne and Sport, Pediatric Work Physiology. Basel: Karger, 1978, pp. 39–46.
106. Koch, G., and L. Fransson. Essential cardiovascular and respiratory determinants of physical performance at age 12–17 years during intensive physical training. J. Rutenfranz, R. Mocellin and F. Klimt (eds). Children and Exerdse XII. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 275–292.
107. Krahenbuhl, G. S., R. P. Pangrazi, W. J. Stone, D. W. Morgan, and T. Williams. Fractional utilization of maximal aerobic capacity in children 6 to 8 years of age. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 1:271–277, 1989.
108. Krahenbuhl, G. S., J. S. Skinner, and W. M. Kohrt. Developmental aspects of maximal aerobic power in children. Exerc. Sports Sci. Rev. 13:503–538, 1985.
109. Krotkiewski, M., J. G. Krai, and J. Karlsson. Effects of castration and testosterone substitution on body composition and muscle metabolism in rats. Acta Physiol. Scand. 109:233–237, 1980.
110. Lac, G., P. Duché, G. Falgairette, and A. Robert. Adrenal androgen profiles in saliva throughout puberty in both sexes. J. Coudert and E. Van Praagh (eds). Pediatric Work Physiology. Paris: Masson, 1992, pp. 221–223.
111. Lehmann, M., J. Keul, and U. Korsten-Reck. Einfluss einer stufenweisen Laufbandergometrie bei Kindern und Erwachsenen auf die Plasmacatecholamine die aerobe und anaerobe Kapazitat. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 47:301–311, 1981.
112. Lohman, T. G. Assessment of body composition in children. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 1:19–30,1989.
113. Lowry, O. H., and J. V. Passonneau. A Flexible System of Enzymatic Analysis. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
114. Macek, M. Aerobic and anaerobic energy output in children. J. Rutenfranz, R. Mocellin and F. Klimt (eds). Children and Exercise XII. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 3–9.
115. Macek, M., and J. Vavra. Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during exercise in childhood. Malatti Cardiovasculari. 10:409–420, 1969.
116. Macek, M., and J. Vavra. Cardiopulmonary and metabolic changes during exercise in children 6–14 years old. J Appl. Physiol. 30:200–204, 1971.
117. Macek, M., and J. Vavra. Relation between aerobic and anaerobic energy supply during maximal exercise in boys. H. Lavallee and R. J. Shephard (eds). Frontiers of Activity and Child Health. Quebec: Editions du Pelican, 1977, pp. 157–159.
118. Macek, M., and J. Vavra. The adjustment of oxygen uptake at the onset of exercise: a comparison between prepubertal boys and young adults. Int. J. Sports Med. 1:75–77,1980.
119. Macek, M., J. Vavra, H. Benesova, and J. Radvansky. The adjustment of oxygen uptake at the onset of exercise: relation to age and to workload. J. Ilmarinen and I. Valimaki (eds). Children and Sport. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984, pp. 129–134.
120. Macek, M., J. Vavra, and J. Novosadova. Prolonged exercise in prepubertal boys. I—Cardiovascular and metabolic adjustment. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 35:291–298, 1976.
121. Malina, R. M. Quantification of fat, muscle and bone in man. Clin. Orthop. 65:9–20, 1969.
122. Malina, R. M. Competitive youth sports and biological maturation. E. W. Brown and C. F. Brama (eds). Competitive Sports for Children and Youth. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,1988, pp. 227–246.
123. Malina, R. M., and C. Bouchard. Growth, Maturation and Physical Activity, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1991.
124. Maughan, R. J. A simple rapid method for the determination of glucose, lactate, pyruvate, alanine, 3-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate on a single 20 μl blood sample. Clin. Chim. Acta 122:231–240, 1982.
125. Mercier, J., A. Varray, M. Ramonatxo, B. Mercier, and C. Prefaut. Influence of anthropometric characteristics on changes in maximal exercise ventilation and breathing pattern during growth in boys. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:235–241, 1991.
126. Mero, A. Blood lactate production and recovery from anaerobic exercise in trained and untrained boys. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:660–666, 1988.
127. Mirwald, R. L., and D. A. Bailey. Maximal Aerobic Power. London, Ont.: Sports Dynamics, 1986.
128. Mitchell, J. H., B. J. Sproule, and C. B. Chapman. The physiological meaning of the maximum oxygen intake test. J. Clin. Invest. 37:538–547, 1958.
129. Mocellin, R., M. Heusgen, and H. P. Gildein. Anaerobic threshold and maximal steady-state blood lactate in prepubertal boys. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:56–60, 1991.
130. Mocellin, R., M. Heusgen, and U. Korsten-Reck. Maximal steady state blood lactate levels in 11-year-old boys. Eur. J. Pediatr. 149:771–773, 1990.
131. Moffatt, R., J. R. Surina, B. Golden, and N. Ayres. Body composition and physiological characteristics of female high school gymnasts. Res. Q. 55:80–84, 1984.
132. Myers, J., D. Walsh, M. Sullivan, and V. Froelicher. Effect of sampling on variability and plateau in oxygen uptake. J. Appl. Physiol. 68:404–410, 1990.
133. Nakagawa, A., and T. Ishiko. Assessment of aerobic capacity with special reference to sex and age of junior and senior high school students in Japan. Jap. J. Physiol. 20:118–129, 1970.
134. Nevill, A. M., R. Ramsbottom, and C. Williams. Scaling physiological measurements for individuals of different size. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:110–117, 1992.
135. Newton, J. L., and S. Robinson. The distribution of blood lactate and pyruvate during work and recovery. Fed. Proc. 24:590, 1965.
136. Nicholson, R. H. Medical Research with Children. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
137. Noakes, T. D. Implications of exercise testing for prediction of athletic performance: a contemporary perspective. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 20:319–330, 1988.
138. Oseid, S., and L. Hermaneen. Hormonal and metabolic changes during and after prolonged work in pre-pubertal boys. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 217(Suppl.):147–153, 1971.
139. Palgi, Y., B. Gutin, J. Young, and D. Alejandro. Physiologic and anthropometric factors underlying endurance performance in children. Int. J. Sports Med. 5:67–73, 1984.
140. Paterson, D. H., and D. A. Cunningham. Development of anaerobic capacity in early and late maturing boys. R. A. Binkhorst, H. C. G. Kemper and W. H. M. Saris (eds). Children and Exercise XI. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1985, pp. 119–128.
141. 2 and blood lactic acid: longitudinal analysis in boys aged 11–15 years. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:93–99, 1986.
142. 2max in children. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 47:113–122, 1981.
143. Pendergast, D. R., D. Shindell, P. Cerretelli, and D. W. Rennie. Role of central and peripheral circulatory adjustments in oxygen transport at the onset of exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 1:160–170, 1980.
144. Pyne, D. B., and R. Telford. Classification of swimming training sessions by blood lactate and heart rate responses. Excel 5:9–12, 1988.
145. Reybrouck, T., M. Weymans, J. Ghesquiere, D. Van Gervan, and H. Stijns. Ventilatory threshold in kindergarten children during treadmill exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 50:79–86, 1982.
146. Rieu, M., A. Duvallet, L. Scharapan, L. Thievlart, and A. Ferry. Blood lactate accumulation in intermittent supramaximal exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:235–242,1988.
147. 2max in active adolescents. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 4:331–339, 1992.
148. Robinson, S. Experimental studies of physical fitness in relation to age. Arbeitsphysiologie 10:251–323, 1938.
149. Rotstein, A., R. Dotan, O. Bar-Or, and G. Tenenbaum. Effect of training on anaerobic threshold and anaerobic performance of preadolescent boys. Int. J. Sports Med. 7:281–286, 1986.
150. Rowland, T. W. Developmental aspects of physiological function relating to aerobic exercise in children. Sports Med. 10:255–266, 1990.
151. Rowland, T. W. On body size and running economy. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 4:1–4, 1992.
152. Rowland, T. W. Aerobic exercise testing protocols. T. W. Rowland (ed). Pediatric laboratory Exercise Testing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1993, pp. 19–41.
153. Rowland, T. W., J. A. Auchinachie, T. J. Keenan, and G. M. Green. Physiologic responses to treadmill running in adult and prepubertal males. Int. J. Sports Med. 8:292–297, 1987.
154. Rowland, T. W., and L. N. Cunningham. Oxygen uptake plateau during maximal treadmill exercise in children. Chest 101:485–489, 1992.
155. Rowland, T. W., and G. M. Green. Physiological responses to treadmill exercise in females: adult-child differences. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 20:474–488, 1988.
156. Rutenfranz, J., K. L. Andersen, V. Seliger, J. Ilmarinen, F. Klimmer, et al. Maximal aerobic power affected by maturation and body growth during childhood and adolescence. Eur. J. Pediatr. 139:106–112, 1982.
157. Sady, S. P. Transient oxygen uptake and heart rate response at the onset of relative endurance exercise in pre-pubertal boys and adult men. Int. J. Sports Med. 2:240–244,1981.
158. Sady, S. P. Cardiorespiratory exercise training in children. Clin. Sports Med. 5:493–514, 1986.
159. Sady, S. P., and V. L. Katch. Relative endurance and physiological responses: a study of individual differences in prepubertal boys and adult men. Res. Q. 52:246–255, 1981.
160. Sady, S. P., V. L. Katch, J. F. Villanacci, and T. B. Gilliam. Children-adult comparisons of oxygen uptake and heart rate kinetics during submaximum exercise. Res. Q. 54:55–59,1983.
161. 2-HR relation during graded treadmill exercise in prepubertal boys and adult men. Res. Q. 54:302–304, 1983.
162. Saltin, B., G. Blomqvist, J. H. Mitchell, R. L. Johnson, Jr., K. Wildenthal, and C. Chapman. Response to exercise after bedrest and after training. Circulation 38:(Suppl. 5), 1968.
163. Saris, W. H. M. Aerobic Power and Daily Physical Activity in Children. Meppel, Netherlands: Kripps Repro., 1982.
164. Saris, W. H. M. Habitual physical activity in children: methodology and findings in health and disease. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 18:253–263, 1986.
165. Saris, W. H. M., A. M. Noordeloos, B. E. M. Ringnalda, M. A. Van’t Hof, and R. A. Binkhorst. Reference values for aerobic power of healthy 4 to 18 year old Dutch children: preliminary results. R. A. Binkhorst, H. C. G. Kemper, and W. H. M. Saris (eds). Children and Exercise XI, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1985, pp. 151–160.
166. Schmidt-Neilsen, K. Scaling: Why is Animal Size So Important? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
167. Schmucker, B., and W. Hollman. The aerobic capacity of trained athletes from 6 to 7 years of age. Acta Pediatr. Belg. 28:92–101, 1974.
168. Sheehan, J. M., T. W. Rowland, and E.J. Burke. A comparison of four treadmill protocols for determination of maximal oxygen uptake in 10 to 12 year old boys. Int. J. Sports Med. 8:31–34, 1987.
169. Shephard, R. J. The working capacity of schoolchildren. R. J. Shephard (ed). Frontiers of Fitness, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1971, pp. 319–345.
170. Shephard, R. J. The prediction of athletic performance by laboratory and field tests—an overview. R. J. Shephard and H. Lavallee (eds). Physical Fitness Assessment—Prindples, Practice and Application, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1978, pp. 113–141.
171. Shephard, R.J. Physical Activity and Growth. London: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1982.
172. Shephard, R.J. Tests of maximum oxygen intake. A critical review. Sports Med. 1:99–124,1984.
173. Shephard, R. J. The Canada Fitness Survey, some international comparisons. J Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 26:292–300, 1986.
174. Shephard, R.J., C. Allen, O. Bar-Or, C. T. M. Davies, S. Degre, et al. The working capacity of Toronto school children. Can Med. Assoc. J. 100:560–566, 705–714, 1969.
175. Shephard, R. J., H. Lavallée, J. C. Jéquier, R. LaBarre, M. Rajic, and C. Beaucage. Seasonal differences in aerobic power. R. J. Shephard and H. Lavellee (eds). Physical Fitness Assessment—Prindples, Practice and Application, Springfield IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1978, pp. 194–210.
176. Sholl, D. The quantitative investigation of the vertebrate brain and the applicability of allometric formulae to its study. Proc. R. Soc. Lond Series B. 35:243–257, 1948.
177. Shuleva, K. M., G. R. Hunter, D.J. Hester, and D. L. Dunaway. Exercise oxygen uptake in 3 chrough 6 year old children. Pediatr. Exerc Sci 2:130–139. 1990.
178. Simon, G., A. Berg, H. H. Dickhuth, A. Simon-Alt, and J. Keul. Bestimmung der anaeroben Schwelle in Abhangigkeit von Alter und von der Leistungsfahigkeit. Dtsch. Z. Sportsmed. 32:7–14, 1981.
179. Simon, J., J. L. Young, D. K. Blood, K. R. Segal, R. B. Case, and B. Gutin. Plasma lactate and ventilation thresholds in trained and untrained cyclists. J Appl. Physiol. 60:777–781,1986.
180. Sjodin, B., and I. Jacobs. Onset of blood lactate accumulation and marathon running performance. Int J. Sports Med. 2:23–26, 1981.
181. Sjodin, B., and Svedenhag, J. Oxygen uptake during running as related to body mass in circumpubertal boys: a longitudinal study. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:150–157, 1992.
182. Skinner, J. S., O. Bar-Or, V. Bergsteinova, C. W. Bell, D. Royer, and E. R. Buskirk. Comparison of continuous and intermittent tests for determining maximal oxygen intake in children. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 217:24–28, 1971.
183. Skinner, J. S., and T. H. McLellan. The transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism. Res. Q. 51:234–248, 1980.
184. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. Statistical Methods. (7th edition). Ames: Iowa Press, 1980.
185. Sprynarova, S., J. Parizkova, and V. Bunc. Relationships between body dimensions and resting and working oxygen consumption in boys aged 11 to 18 years. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:725–736, 1987.
186. -1. Int. J. Sports Med. 3:105–110, 1982.
187. Stegmann, H., W. Kindermann, and A. Schnabel. Lactate kinetics and individual anaerobic threshold. Int. J. Sports Med. 2:160–165, 1981.
188. Sunnegardh, J., and L. E. Bratteby. Maximal oxygen uptake, anthropometry and physical activity in a randomly selected sample of 8 and 13 year old children in Sweden. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:266–272, 1987.
189. Suurnakki, T., J. Ilmarinen, C. Nygard, P. V. Komi, and J. Karlsson. Anaerobic strain in children during a cross-country skiing competition. J. Rutenfranz, R. Mocellin, and F. Klimt (eds). Children and Exercise XII. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986, pp. 67–76.
190. Tanaka, H., and M. Shindo. Running velocity at blood lactate threshold of boys aged 6–15 years compared with untrained and trained young males. Int. J. Sports Med. 6:90–94,1985.
191. Tanner, J. M. Fallacy of per-weight and per-surface area standards and their relation to spurious correlation. J. Appl. Physiol. 2:1–15, 1949.
192. Tanner, J. M. Growth at Adolescence. (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1962.
193. Tanner, J. M. The Physique of the Olympic Athlete. London: George, Allen and Unwin, 1964.
194. Tanner, I. M. Foetus into Man. Physical Growth from Conception to Maturity. London: Open Books, 1978.
195. Taylor, H. L., E. R. Buskirk, and A. Henschel. Maximal oxygen intake as an objective measure of cardiorespiratory performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 8:73–80, 1955.
196. Tell, G. S. Cardiovascular disease risk factors related to sexual maturation: the Oslo Youth Study. J. Chron. Dis. 38:633–642, 1985.
197. Thoden, J. S. Testing aerobic power. J. D. MacDougall, H. A. Wenger, and H. J. Green (eds). Physiological Testing of the High Performance Athlete. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,1998, pp. 107–173.
198. Thoden, J. S., B. A. Wilson and J. D. MacDougal. Testing aerobic power, J. D. MacDougal, G.A. Wenger, and H. J. Green (eds). Physiological Testing of the Elite Athlete. New York: Mouvement Pubs, 1982, pp. 39–60.
199. Tolfrey, K., and N. Armstrong. The relationship between blood lactate responses to incremental exercise and age. J. Sports Sci. 10:563–564, 1992.
200. Vaccaro, P., and A. Mahon. Cardiorespiratory responses to endurance training in children. Sports Med. 4:352–363, 1987.
201. Walsh, M. L., and E. W. Bannister. Possible mechanisms of the anaerobic threshold: a review. Sports Med. 5:269–302, 1988.
202. Washington, R. L. Anaerobic threshold in children. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 1:244–256, 1989.
203. Washington, R. L. Anaerobic threshold. T. W. Rowland (ed). Pediatric Laboratory Exercise Testing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1993, pp. 115–130.
204. Washington, R. L., J. C. van Gundy, C. Cohen, H. M. Sondheimer, and R. R. Wolfe. Normal aerobic and anaerobic exercise data for North American school-age children. J Pediatr. 112:223–233, 1988.
205. Wasserman, K. The anaerobic threshold measurement to evaluate exercise performance. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 129(Suppl.):S35–S40, 1984.
206. Wasserman, K., B. J. Whipp, S. N. Koyal, and W. L. Beaver. Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 35:236–243, 1973.
207. 2 based enzyme electrode for whole blood lactate measurement under continuous flow conditions. Clin. Chim. Acla 155:295–308,1986.
208. Weil, M. H., J. A. Leavy, E. C. Rackow, and C. J. Halfman. Validation of a semi-automated technique for measuring lactate in whole blood. Clin. Chem. 32:2175–2177, 1986.
209. Welsman, J. R., and N. Armstrong. Daily physical activity and blood lactate indices of aerobic fitness in children. Br. J. Sports Med. 26:228–232, 1992.
210. Weltman, A., D. Snead, R. Seip, R. Schurrer, S. Levine, et al. Prediction of lactate threshold and fixed blood lactate concentrations from 3200m running performance in male runners. Int. J. Sports Med. 8:401–406, 1987.
211. Weymans, M., T. Reybrouck, H. Stijns, and J. Knops. Influence of age and sex on the ventilatory anaerobic threshold in children. R. A. Binkhorst, H. C. G. Kemper, and W. H. M. Saris (eds). Children and Exercise XI. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1985, pp. 114–118.
212. Whipp, B. J., and K. Wasserman. Oxygen uptake kinetics for various intensities of constant load work. J. Appl. Physiol. 33:351–356, 1972.
213. Williams, J. R., and N. Armstrong. The influence of age and sexual maturation on children’s blood lactate responses to exercise. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 3:111–120, 1991.
214. Williams, J. R., and N. Armstrong. Relationship of maximal lactate steady state to performance at fixed blood lactate reference values in children, Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 3:333–341, 1991.
215. Williams, J. R., N. Armstrong, and B. J. Kirby. The 4mM blood lactate level as an index of exercise performance in 11–13 year old children. J. Sports Sci. 8:139–147, 1990.
216. Williams, J. R., N. Armstrong, and B. J. Kirby. The influence of the site of sampling and assay medium upon the interpretation of blood lactate responses to exercise. J. Sports Sci. 10:95–107, 1992.
217. Williams, J. R., N. Armstrong, E. M. Winter, and N. Crichton. Changes in peak oxygen uptake with age and sexual maturation in boys: physiological fact or statistical anomaly? J. Coudert and E. Van Praagh (eds). Children and Exercise XVI. Paris: Masson, 1992, pp. 35–37.
218. Winter, E. M. Scaling: partitioning out differences in size. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 4:296–301,1992.
219. Winter, E. M., F. B. C. Brookes, and E. J. Hamley. Maximal exercise performance and lean leg volume in men and women. J. Sports Sci. 9:3–13, 1991.
220. Wirth, A., E. Trager, K. Scheele, D. Mayer, K. Diehm, et al. Cardiopulmonary adjustment and metabolic response to maximal and submaximal physical exercise of boys and girls at different stages of maturity. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 39:229–240, 1978.
221. Working Party on Ethics of Research in Children. Guidelines to aid ethical committees considering research involving children. Br. Med. J. 280:229–231, 1980.
222. Working Party on Research in Children. The Ethical Conduct of Research in Children. London: Medical Research Council, 1991.
223. Woynarowska, B. The validity of different estimations of maximal oxygen uptake in children 11–12 years of age. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 43:19–23, 1980.
224. Yeh, M. P., R. M. Gardner, T. D. Adams, F. G. Yanowitz, and R. O. Crapo. Anaerobic threshold: problems of determination and validation. J Appl. Physiol. 55:1178–1186,1983.
225. Yoshida, T. Current topics and concepts of lactate and gas exchange thresholds. J. Hum. Ergol. 16:103–121, 1987.
226. Yoshida, T., M. Chida, M. Khioka, and Y. Suda. Blood lactate parameters related to aerobic capacity and endurance performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:7–11, 1987.
227. Yoshida, T., N. Takeuchi, and Y. Suda. Arterial versus venous blood lactate increase in the forearm during incremental bicycle exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 50:87–93, 1982.
228. Yoshizawa, S. A comparative study of aerobic work capacity in urban and rural adolescents. J. Hum. Ergol. 1:45–65, 1972.
229. Yoshizawa, S., H. Honda, M. Urushibara, and N. Nakamura. Aerobic-anaerobic energy supply and daily physical activity level in young children. S. Oseid and K-H. Carlsen (eds). Children and Exercise XIII. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1989, pp. 47–56.
230. Yoshizawa, S., T. Ishizaki, and H. Honda. Physical fitness of children aged 5 and 6 years. J. Hum. Ergol. 6:41–51, 1977.