-
9
-
-
0024937023
-
The woodfuel crisis reconsidered observations on the dynamics of abundance and scarcity
-
also see
-
(1988)
World Development
, vol.17
, Issue.8
, pp. 1159-1172
-
-
de Wees1
-
12
-
-
0023523568
-
Improved stoves in developing countries: a critique
-
(1987)
Energy Policy
, vol.15
, pp. 135-144
-
-
Gil1
-
14
-
-
0022169081
-
Wood energy and preservation of woodlands in semi-arid developing countries: the case of Dodoma Region, Tanzania
-
(1985)
Journal of Development Economics
, vol.19
, pp. 59-84
-
-
Allen1
-
16
-
-
84919312194
-
-
R.H. Hosier, ‘Woodfuel prices, depletion effects, and selective harvesting in Eastern Africa’, World Development, forthcoming.
-
-
-
-
17
-
-
84919312193
-
-
Op cit, Ref 5.
-
-
-
-
18
-
-
0024157946
-
The economics of deforesation in Eastern Africa
-
(1988)
Economic Geography
, vol.64
, Issue.2
, pp. 121-136
-
-
Hosier1
-
20
-
-
84919312192
-
-
R.H. Hosier and W. Kipondya, ‘Urban household energy use in Tanzania’, in this issue of Energy Policy.
-
-
-
-
21
-
-
84919312191
-
-
Jill Boberg, ‘Competition in Tanzanian woodfuel markets’, in this issue of Energy Policy.
-
-
-
-
23
-
-
84919312190
-
-
Op cit, Refs 15 and 16.
-
-
-
-
24
-
-
84919312189
-
-
Op cit, Ref 15.
-
-
-
-
25
-
-
84919312188
-
Biomass Assessment: Woody Biomass in the SADCC Region
-
ETC Foundation, London, in association with the
-
(1989)
Earthscan
-
-
Millington1
Townsend2
-
26
-
-
84919312187
-
-
Op cit, Ref 16.
-
-
-
-
27
-
-
84919312186
-
-
Ibid.
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
84919312185
-
-
The environmental observation protocol was not available at the time that the Mbeya and Shinyanga charcoal field studies were undertaken. As a result, their results are in no way comparable to those for Dar es Salaam, and do not figure in the following discussion. Additionally, although attempts were made to visit the major charcoal supplying regions for each city, in the case of Shinyanga, all three evaluations came from a single supply area, Kahama.
-
-
-
-
29
-
-
84919312184
-
-
The relative strength of these communal management systems may be one explanation of why the natural woodlands outside Dar es Salaam have remained relatively healthy.
-
-
-
-
35
-
-
0022168858
-
Soil response to forest clearing in the United States and the tropics: geological and biological factors
-
(1985)
Biotropica
, vol.17
, pp. 15-27
-
-
Allen1
-
41
-
-
84919312179
-
-
In general, the removal of undergrowth would be expected to increase the severity of erosion. As a result, no-till cultivation would be environmentally beneficial. However, in some savannah areas, complete understorey clearance and deep ploughing may actually lead to decreased erosion, as the gravel brought up from deeper in the soil forms a protective barrier (op cit, Ref 29).
-
-
-
-
42
-
-
0019909862
-
Amazon basin soils: management for continuous crop production
-
For a discussion of the conversion of tropical forest land to permanent cultivation, see
-
(1982)
Science
, vol.216
, pp. 821-827
-
-
Sanchez1
Bankdy2
Villachica3
Nicholaides4
-
43
-
-
84919312178
-
-
Op cit, Ref 29.
-
-
-
-
44
-
-
84919312177
-
-
For an excellent discussion of miombo recovery, see E.N. Chidumayo, ‘Zambian charcoal production: miombo woodland recovery’, in this issue of Energy Policy.
-
-
-
-
46
-
-
84919312176
-
-
Op cit, Ref 20.
-
-
-
-
48
-
-
84919312175
-
-
This conclusion is based on the observed impacts of sites which were selectively harvested is similar to those reached by Dunne et al, op cit, Ref 32.
-
-
-
-
49
-
-
84919312174
-
-
At one of the sites which had been clear felled less than a year previously, the field was on a very steep slope, and it was unlikely that the farmer would be able to maintain cultivation for more than a year or two. He made a giant charcoal kiln out of the wood cleared from the land, but it burnt through and yielded no charcoal in the end. This was an unusual case where the farmer had little or no recent experience of farming but had come to the site recently to claim the plot following the death of a relative. Obviously farmers with little or no experience will do more damage to the environment than those who are knowledgeable and experienced.
-
-
-
-
51
-
-
84919312173
-
-
This point is noted in op cit, Refs 40 and 29.
-
-
-
-
52
-
-
84919312172
-
-
Kiln damage appears to be long-lasting, but spatially limited in the charcoal production sites studied in Zambia: see Chidumayo, op cit, Ref 39.
-
-
-
-
55
-
-
84919312171
-
-
Op cit, Ref 40.
-
-
-
-
56
-
-
84919312170
-
-
The concepts of woodland recovery as discussed here draw upon a rudimentary understanding of ecological restoration. See J.J. Berger, ed, Environmental Restoration: Science and Strategies for Restoring the Earth, Island Press, Washington, DC, 1990.
-
-
-
-
58
-
-
84919312169
-
-
This map is taken from op cit, Ref 20. NDVI stands for normalized difference vegetation index, calculated from two different infrared wavelengths on NOAA satellite imagery.
-
-
-
-
59
-
-
84919312168
-
-
The following discussion of selective harvesting draws upon op cit, Ref 11.
-
-
-
-
60
-
-
84919312167
-
-
Another option exists in this case, that of destroying the trees which are not ready for harvesting. This is the option which is chosen when the land is cleared for agriculture, but it will not be discussed at this juncture.
-
-
-
-
61
-
-
84919312166
-
-
This discussion assumes that charcoal kiln technology remains constant and is not a variable in the calculations of charcoal producers. Typical conversion efficiencies for charcoal kilns range from about 20% for the traditional earth stack kiln most frequently encountered in Africa to about 40% for a mobile Mark IV kiln. The impact of improved kiln efficiencies may be to intensify the clearance of a given piece of land, but reduce the overall number of land units to be harvested, as is discussed below. For information on improvements in the charcoal harvesting process, see Charles Feinstein and Robert van der Plas, Improving Charcoal Production in the Traditional Rural Sector, World Bank Industry and Energy Department Working Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC, 1990.
-
-
-
-
62
-
-
84919312165
-
-
If viewed from the perspective of clearing land, the high and low cost supply sources would be reversed. That is to say, for producing biomass, the larger trees demonstrate the lowest cost of production. However, from the perspective of land clearance, the larger trees represent the higher cost per unit cleared. See P.O. Johansson and K.G. Lofgren, The Economics of Forestry and Natural Resources, Basil Blackwell, New York, 1985, pp 122–123.
-
-
-
-
63
-
-
84919312164
-
-
Op cit, Ref 13.
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
84919312163
-
-
In other contexts, agricultural clearance may be undertaken either by machines or by hand. Machine clearance represents the greatest damage which can be inflicted upon a give site. Hand clearance is less destructive to the soil, and is virtually the only clearance method currently practised in Tanzania.
-
-
-
-
67
-
-
84919312162
-
-
Only a few pieces pay attention to the historical basis of the woodfuel shortage. See Carolyn Barnes, ‘The historical foundation of the fuelwood crisis in Kisii District, Kenya,’ in C. Barnes, J. Ensminger and P. O'Keefe, eds, Energy, Environment, and Development in Africa, Vol 6, Beijer Institute and Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Stockholm, 1984; also Gordon McGranaham, ‘Fuelwood subsistence foraging, and the decline of common property,’ World Development, Vol 19, No 10, 1991, pp 1275–1288.
-
-
-
-
69
-
-
84919312161
-
-
The labour requirements of these different land-use practices are documented in William Allan, The African Husbandman, Barnes and Noble, New York, 1965.
-
-
-
-
70
-
-
84919312160
-
-
Op cit, Ref 63.
-
-
-
-
72
-
-
84919312159
-
-
These maps are taken from ibid. The original maps which Ford used can be found in Heinrich Schnee, Deutsches Kolonial-Lexikon, Vol 3, Verlag von Quelle und Mayer, Leipzig, 1920, pp 293–294; and W.H. Potts. ‘The distribution of tsetse flies in the Tanganyika Territory’, Bulletin of Entymological Research, Vol 28, 1937, pp 129–148.
-
-
-
-
73
-
-
84919312158
-
-
If the available maps from 1908 and 1955 are added to the series, the expansion of the bushland is more clearly documented. See Philip W. Porter, ‘Agricultural development and agricultural vermin in Tanzania’, Paper presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting in Boston on 23 February 1976.
-
-
-
-
76
-
-
84919312156
-
-
See op cit, Ref 15.
-
-
-
-
77
-
-
84919312155
-
-
Op cit, Ref 8.
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
84919312154
-
-
The original source of the quote is the Tanganyika Veterinary Report of 1930. The citation is found in op cit, Ref 66, p 205.
-
-
-
-
81
-
-
0021583173
-
Rates of erosion and sediment yield in the African environment
-
D.E. Walling, S.S.D. Foster, P. Wurzell, International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication No 144, Wallingford, UK, These measurements are made by reference to the depth tree and brush pedestals. The citation was found in op cit, Ref 61.
-
(1984)
Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources
-
-
Stocking1
-
82
-
-
84919312152
-
-
2 of additional land. Altogether, these reserves and parks take up nearly 15% of the nation's land area (see Lilla Lyogello, A Guide to Tanzania National Parks, Tanzania Tourist Guide Books, Dar es Salaam, 1990). Although there is some illegal encroachment in these areas, the indigenous forest types would appear to be well protected in Tanzania. Significant animal losses to poaching do occur, but so far, the woodland losses appear to be relatively minor.
-
-
-
|
