Immunoendocrine communication via the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in autoimmune diseases

Endocrine Reviews

Volumn 14, Issue 5, 1993, Pages 539-563

  Wick, G ^a   Hu, Y ^a   Schwarz, S ^a   Kroemer, G ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK   (Austria)

^b UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLUCOCORTICOID; INTERLEUKIN 1;

AGING; ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; ANIMAL MODEL; APOPTOSIS; ARTHRITIS; AUTOIMMUNITY; CHICKEN; ETIOLOGY; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SYSTEMIC SCLEROSIS;

ADRENAL GLANDS; ANIMAL; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNE TOLERANCE; OBESITY; PITUITARY GLAND; SUPPORT, NON-U.S. GOV'T; THYROIDITIS, AUTOIMMUNE;

EID: 0027427524     PISSN: 0163769X     EISSN: 0163769X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/edrv-14-5-539     Document Type: Article

References (272)

1. Besedovsky HO, Sorkin E 1977 Network of immunoneuroendo-crine interactions. Clin Exp Immunol 27:1-12
2. Blalock JE 1984 The immune system as a sensory organ. J Immunol 132:1067-1070
3. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A, Sorkin E 1983 What do the immune system and the brain know about each other? Immunol Today 4:342-345
4. Cotman CW, Brinton RE, Galaburda A, McEwen B, Schneider DM (eds) 1987 The Neuroimmune Endocrine Connection. Raven Press, New York
5. Blalock JE (ed) 1992 Neuroimmunoendocrinology. Karger, Basel, vol 52
6. Munck A, Guyer PM, Holbrook NY 1984 Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocr Rev 5:25-44
7. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS 1986 The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr Rev 7:284-301
8. Bateman A, Singh A, Krai T, Solomon S 1989 The immune hypothalamic pituitary axis. Endocr Rev 10:92-112
9. Schauenstein K, Faessler R, Dietrich H, Schwarz S, Kroemer G, Wick G 1987 Disturbed immuno-endocrine communication in autoimmune disease. Lack of corticosterone response to immune signals in Obese strain chickens with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. J Immunol 139:1830-1833
10. Kroemer G, Brezinschek HP, Faessler R, Schauenstein K, Wick G 1988 Physiology and pathology of an immunoendocrine feedback loop. Immunol Today 9:163-165
11. Wick G, Hu Y, Gruber J 1992 The role of the immunoendocrine interaction via the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in autoimmune disease. Trends Endocrinol Metab 3:141-146
12. Derijk R, Berkenbosch F 1991 The immuno-hypothalamo-pitui-tary-adrenal axis in autoimmunity. Int J Neurosci 59:91-100
13. Wick G, Hu Y, Gruber J, Kuehr T, Wozak E, Hala K 1992 The role of modulatory factors in the multifacetted pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroiditis. Intern Rev Immunol 9:77-89
14. Wick G, Brezinschek HP, Hala K, Dietrich H, Wolf H, Kroemer G 1989 The Obese strain (OS) of chickens: an animal model with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. Adv Immunol 47:433-500
15. Rose NR, Bacon LD, Sundick RS 1976 Genetic determinants of thyroiditis in the OS chicken. Transplant Rev 31:264-279
16. Wick G, Kroemer G, Neu N, Faessler R, Ziemiecki A, Mueller RG, Ginzel M, Beladi I, Kuehr T, Hala K 1987 The multifactorial pathogenesis of autoimmune disease. Immunol Lett 16:249-258
17. Kroemer G, Neu N, Kuehr T, Dietrich H, Faessler R, Hala K, Wick G 1989 Immunogenetic analysis of spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis of Obese strain chickens. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 52:202-213
18. Wick G, Hala K, Wolf H, Ziemiecki A, Sundick RS, Stoeffler-Meilecke M, DeBaets M 1986 The role of genetically determined primary alterations of the target organ in the development of spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis in Obese strain (OS) chickens. Immunol Rev 94:113-136
19. Kroemer G, Gastinel LN, Auffray C, Wick G 1990 How many genes code for organ specific autoimmunity? Autoimmunity 6:215-233
20. Hala K 1988 Hypothesis: immunogenetic analysis of spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis in Obese strain (OS) chickens. A two gene family model. Immunobiology 177:354-373
21. Milgrom F, Witebsky E 1962 Autoantibodies and autoimmune disease. JAMA 181:706-717
22. Kroemer G, Martinez AC 1991 The fail safe paradigm of immunological self tolerance. Lancet 2:1246-1249
23. Kroemer G, Martinez A (eds) 1992 Clonal deletion and anergy: from models to reality. Res Immunol 134:263-372
24. Kroemer G, Ales Martinez JE, Martinez AG 1992 Mechanisms of self tolerance. Immunol Today 12:401-404
25. Kroemer G, Cuende E, Martinez AC 1992 Compartmentalization of the peripheral immune system. Adv Immunol 50:147-235
26. Kim C, Siminovitch KA, Ochi A 1991 Reduction of lupus nephritis in MRL/lpr mice by a bacterial superantigen treatment. J Exp Med 174:1431-1437
27. Waldmann H 1989 Manipulation of T cell response with monoclonal antibodies. Annu Rev Immunol 7:407-444
28. Tan LJ, Kennedy MK, Dal Canto MC, Miller SD 1991 Successful treatment of paralytic relapses in adoptive experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via neuroantigen specific tolerance. J Immunol 147:1797-1802
29. Cohen IR, Young DB 1991 Autoimmunity, microbial immunity and the immunological homunculus. Immunol Today 12:105-110
30. Gutierrez Ramos JC, Andreu JL, Moreno de Alboran I, Rodriguez J, Leonard E, Kroemer G, Marcos MAR, Martinez AC 1990 Insights into autoimmunity: from classical models to current perspectives. Immunol Rev 118:73-101
31. Yednock TA, Cannon C, Fritz LC, Sanchez Madrid F, Steinman L, Karin N 1992 Prevention of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by antibodies against a4)31 integrin. Nature 356:63-66
32. Fox H 1992 Rogen treatment prevents diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice. J Exp Med 175:1409-1412
33. Kahan BD 1989 Cyclosporine. N Engl J Med 321:1725-1729
34. Heath WR, Allison J, Hoffman MW, Schoenrich G, Haemmer-ling G, Arnold B, Miller JF 1992 Autoimmune diabetes as a consequence of locally produced interleukin-2. Nature 359:547-549
35. Kaufmann SHE 1990 Heat shock proteins and the immune response. Immunol Today 11:129-136
36. Davis MM, Bjorkman PJ 1988 T cell antigen receptor genes and T cell recognition. Nature 334:395-402
37. Moss PAH, Rosenberg WMC, Bell JI 1992 The human T cell receptor in health and disease. Annu Rev Immunol 10:71-96
38. Von Boehmer H 1990 Developmental biology of T cells in T cell receptor transgenic mice. Annu Rev Immunol 8:531-556
39. Miller JFAP, Morahan G 1992 Peripheral T cell tolerance. Annu Rev Immunol 10:51-69
40. Esch T, Clark L, Zhang XM, Goldman S, Heber-Katz E 1992 Observations, legends and conjectures concerning restricted T cell receptor usage and autoimmune disease. Crit Rev Immunol 11:249-264
41. Ferrick DA, Ohasi PS, Wallace VA, Shilham M, Mak TW 1990 Transgenic mice as an in vivo model for self reactivity. Immunol Rev 118:257-283
42. Scholz GS, Albert ED 1990 HLA and autoimmune disease In: Bigazzi PE, Wick G, Wicher K (eds) Organ Specific Autoimmunity. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 11-23
43. Todd JA, Bell JI, McDevitt HO 1987 HLA DQβ gene contributes to susceptibility and resistance to insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Nature 329:599-664
44. Erlich HA 1989 HLA and insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Nature 337:415
45. Bottazzo GF, Pujol Borell R, Hanafusa T, Feldmann M 1983 Hypothesis: role of aberrant HLA DR expression and antigen presentation in the induction of endocrine autoimmunity. Lancet 2:1115-1119
46. Aichinger G, Fill H, Wick G 1985 In situ immune complexes, lymphocyte and subpopulations, and HLA DR positive epithelial cells in Hashimoto thyroiditis. Lab Invest 52:132-140
47. Moest J, Knapp W, Wick G 1986 Class II antigens in Hashimoto thyroiditis. II. Expression of HLA DR on infiltrating mononuclear cells in peripolesis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 41:165-174
48. Bohme J, Haskins K, Stech P, van Ewijk W, LeMeur P, Gerlinger C, Benoist C, Mathis D 1989 Transgenic mice with I-A on islet cells are normoglycemic but immunologically intolerant. Science 244:1179-1183
49. Vladutiu A, Rose NR 1971 Autoimmune murine thyroiditis. Relation to histocompatibility (H2) type. Science 174:1137-1139
50. Vladutiu A, Rose NR 1972 Murine thyroiditis. III. Influence of syngenic allogenic thyroid antigen on induction of the disease. Clin Exp Immunol 11:245-254
51. Rose NR, Griffin DE 1991 Virus induced autoimmunity. In: Talal N (ed) Molecular Autoimmunity. Academic Press, New York, pp 247-272
52. Young RA 1990 Stress proteins and immunology. Annu Rev Immunol 8:401-420
53. Wick G, Kleindienst R, Dietrich H, Xu Q 1992 Is atherosclerosis an autoimmune disease? Trends Food Sci Technol 3:114-119
54. Dinarello CA 1992 The biology of interleukin-1. In: Kishimoto T (ed) Interleukins: Molecular Biol Immunol, Chem Immunol. Karger, Basel, vol 51:1-32
55. Texier B, Bedin C, Rombaty C, Brezin C, Charreire J 1992 Protection from experimental autoimmune thyroiditis conferred by a monoclonal antibody to T cell receptor from a cytotoxic hybridoma specific for thyroglobulin. J Immunol 148:439-444
56. Cohen IR, Ben Nun A, Holoshitz J, Maron R, Zerubavel R 1983 Vaccination against autoimmune disease using lines of autoimmune T lymphocytes. Immunol Today 4:227-230
57. Baumann G, Zenke G, Wenger R, Hiest P, Quesniaux V, Andersen E, Schreier MH 1992 Molecular mechanisms of immunosuppression. J Autoimm 5:67-72
58. Horneff G, Burmester G, Emmrich F, Kalden JR 1991 Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with an anti CD4 monoclonal antibody. Arthritis Rheum 34:129-140
59. Lider O, Reshef T, Beraud E, Ben Nun A, Cohen IR 1988 Anti idiotypic network induced by T cell vaccination against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Science 239:181-183
60. Traill KN, Huber LA, Wick G, Juergens G 1990 Lipoprotein interactions with T cells: an update. Immunol Today 11:411-417
61. Sundick RS 1990 Iodine in autoimmune thyroiditis. In: Bigazzi PE, Wick G, Wicher K (eds) Organ Specific Autoimmunity. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 213-228
62. Smith EM, Blalock JE 1988 A molecular basis for interactions between the immune and neuroendocrine system. Int J Neurosci 38:455-464
63. Grossmann CJ, Roselle GA, Mendenhall CL 1991 Sex steroid regulation of autoimmunity. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 40:649-659
64. Lahita RG 1991 Sex hormones in the immune system. In: Talal N (ed) Molecular Autoimmunity. Academic Press, New York, pp 385-402
65. Verheul HAM, Schot LPC, Deckers GHJ, Schuurs AHWM 1986 Effects of tibolone, lynestrol, ethylestrenol and desogestrel on autoimmune disorders in NZB/W mice. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 38:198-208
66. Schuurs AHWM, Dietrich H, Gruber J, Wick G 1992 Effects of sex steroid analogs on spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis in Obese strain chickens. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 97:337-344
67. Zubiaga AM, Munoz E, Huber BT 1992 IL-4 and IL-2 selectively rescue Th cell subsets from glucocorticoid induced apoptosis. J Immunol 149:107-112
68. McConkey DJ, Aguilar Santelisea M, Hartzell P, Eriksson I, Melistedt H, Orrenius S, Jondal M 1991 Induction of DNA fragmentation in chronic B lymphocytic leukemia cells. J Immunol 146:1072-1076
69. Compton MM, Gibbs PS, Johnson LR 1990 Glucocorticoid activation of deoxyribonucleic acid degradation in bursal lymphocytes. Poult Sci 69:1292-1298
70. Compton MM, Gibbs PS, Swicegood LR 1990 Glucocorticoid mediated activation of DNA degradation in avian lymphocytes. Gen Comp Endocrinol 80:68-79
71. Cohen IJ, Duke RC, Fadok VA, Sellins KS 1992 Apoptosis and programmed cell death in immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 10:267-293
72. Golstein P, Ojcius DM, Young JDE 1991 Cell death mechanisms and the immune system. Immunol Rev 121:29-65
73. Abbott B D Harris MW, Birnbaum LS 1992 Comparisons of the effects of TCDD and hydrocortisone on growth factor expression provide insight into their interaction in the embryonic mouse palate. Teratology 45:35-53
74. Zacharchuk C, Mercep M, Chakraborti PK, Simons SSJ, Ash well JD 1990 Programmed T lymphocyte death: cell activation and steroid induced pathways are mutually antagonistic. J Immunol 145:4037-4045
75. Iwata M, Hanaoka S, Sato K 1991 Rescue of thymocytes and T cell hybridomas from glucocorticoid induced apoptosis by stimulation via the T cell receptor/CD3 complex: a possible in vitro model for positive selection of the T cell repertoire. Eur J Immunol 21:643-648
76. Iseki R, Mukai M, Iwata M 1991 Regulation of T lymphocyte apoptosis. Signals for the antagonism between activation and glucocorticoid induced death. J Immunol 147:4286-4292
77. Caron-Leslie LM, Schwartzman RA, Gaido ML, Compton MM 1991 Identification and characterization of glucocorticoid regulated nuclease(s) in lymphoid cells undergoing apoptosis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 40:661-671
78. Schwartzman RA, Cidlowski JA 1991 Intemucleosomal deoxyribonucleic acid cleavage activity in apoptotic thymocytes: detection and endocrine regulation. Endocrinology 128:1190-1197
79. Ip MM, Shea WK, Sykes D, Young DA 1991 The truncated glucocorticoid receptor in the P-1789 mouse lymphosarcoma is associated with resistance to glucocorticoid lysis but not to other glucocorticoid-induced functions. Cancer Res 51:2786-2796
80. Gonzalo JA, Moreno de Alboran I, Ales-Martinez JE, Martinez-AC, Kroemer G 1992 Expansion and clonal deletion of peripheral T cells induced by bacterial superantigen is independent of the interleukin 2 pathway. Eur J Immunol 22:1007-1011
81. Kawabe Y, Ochi A 1991 Programmed cell death and extra thymic reduction of Vβ8+ CD4+ T cells in mice tolerant to Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B. Nature 349:245-248
82. White J, Herman A, Pullen AM, Kubo R, Kappler JW, Marrack P 1989 The Vβ-specific superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B: stimulation of mature T cells and clonal deletion in neonatal mice. Cell 56:27-35
83. Gonzalo JA, Gonzalo-Garcia A, Martinez AC, Kroemer G 1993 Glucocorticoid-mediated control of the clonal deletion and activation of peripheral T cells in vivo. J Exp Med 177:1239-1246
84. Schwartz RH 1990 A cell culture model for T lymphocyte clonal anergy. Science 248:1349-1356
85. Serfling ER, Barthelmas R, Pfeuffer I, Schank B, Zarius S, Swoboda R, Mercurio F, Karin M 1989 Ubiquitous and lymphocyte specific factors are involved in the induction of the mouse interleukin 2 gene in T lymphocytes. EMBO J 8:465-472
86. Vacca A, Felli MP, Farina AR, Martinotti S, Maroder M, Scre-panti I, Meco D, Petrangeli ELF, Gulino A 1992 Glucocorticoid receptor mediated suppression of the interleukin-2 gene expression through impairment of the cooperativity between nuclear factor of activated T cells and AP 1 enhancer elements. J Exp Med 175:637-646
87. Schreiber SL, Crabtree GR 1992 The mechanism of action of cyclosporin A and FK506. Immunol Today 13:136-142
88. Tai PKK, Albers MW, Chang H, Faber LE, Schreiber SL 1992 Association of 59 kilodalton immunophilin with glucocorticoid receptor complex. Science 256:1315-1318
89. Go C, Miller J 1992 Differential induction of transcription factors that regulate the interleukin 2 gene during anergy induction and restimulation. J Exp Med 175:1327-1336
90. Daynes RA, Araneo BA 1989 Contrasting effects of glucocorticoids on the capacity of T cells to produce the growth factors interleukin-2 and interleukin-4. Eur J Immunol 19:2319-2325
91. Mosmann TR, Coffman RL 1989 TH1 and TH2 cells: different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annu Rev Immunol 7:145-173
92. Karpus WJ, Gould KE, Swanburg RH 1992 CD4+ suppressor cells of autoimmune encephalomyelitis respond to T cell receptor associated determinants on effector cells by interleukin 4 secretion. Eur J Immunol 22:1757-1763
93. Dietrich G, Kaveri SV, Kazatchkine MD 1992 Modulation of autoimmunity by intravenous immune globulin through interaction with the function of the immune/idiotypic network. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 62:S73-S81
94. Pereira P, Beira A, Coutinho A, Marcos MA, Toribio M, Martinez AC 1989 V-region connectivity in T cell repertoires. Annu Rev Immunol 7:209-249
95. Helmberg A, Faessler R, Geley S, Joehrer K, Kroemer G, Boeck G, Kofler R 1990 Glucocorticoid-regulated gene expression in the immune system. J Immunol 145:4332-4337
96. Cianciolo GJ, Copel TD, Oroszlan S, Snyderman R 1985 Inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation by a synthetic peptide homologous to retroviral envelope proteins. Science 230:453-454
97. Ogasawara M, Haraguchi S, Cianciolo G, Mitani M, Good RA, Day NK 1990 Inhibition of murine cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity by a synthetic retroviral peptide and abrogation of this activity by IL. J Immunol 145:456-462
98. Harris DT, Cianciolo GJ, Snyderman R, Argov S, Koren HS 1987 Inhibition of human natural killer cell activity by a synthetic peptide homologous to a conserved region in the retroviral protein pl5E. J Immunol 138:889-894
99. Harrell RA, Cianciolo GJ, Copel TD, Oroszlan S, Snyderman R 1986 Suppression of the respiratory burst of human monocytes by a synthetic peptide homologous to envelope proteins of human animal retroviruses. J Immunol 136:3517-3520
100. Fertsch-Ruggio D, Schoenberg DR, Vogel SN 1988 Induction of macrophage la expression by rIFN-gamma and down regulation by IFN-β and dexamethasone are regulated transcriptionally. J Immunol 141:1582-1589
101. Hamaguchi K, Leiter EH 1989 Comaprison of cytokine effects on mouse pancreatic /3-cells and (3-cell lines. Diabetes 39:415-425
102. Jacobson L, Sapolsky R 1991 The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Endocr Rev 12:118-134
103. Rivier C, Chizzonite R, Vale W 1989 In the mouse, the activation of the hypothamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by a lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin) is mediated through interleukin 1. Endocrinology 125:2800-2805
104. Besedovsky HO, Sorkin E, Felix D, Haas H 1977 Hypothalamic changes during the immune response. Eur J Immunol 7:323-328
105. Besedovksy HO, Sorkin E, Keller M, Mueller J 1975 Changes in blood hormone levels during the immune response. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 150:466-470
106. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A 1989 Mechanisms of virus induced stimulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 34:1-6
107. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A, Sorkin E, Dinarello CA 1986 Im-munoregulatory feedback between interleukin 1 and glucocorticoid hormones. Science 233:652-654
108. Besedovsky HO, del Rey AE, Sorkin E 1985 Immune-neuroendocrine interactions. J Immunol 104:45-53
109. Perlstein RS, Mougey EH, Jackson WE, Neta R 1991 Interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 act synergistically to stimulate the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone in vivo. Lymphokine Cytokine Res 10:141-146
110. Brezinschek HP, Faessler R, Klocker H, Kroemer G, Sgonc R, Dietrich H, Jakober R, Wick G 1990 Analysis of the immune-endocrine feedback loop in the avian system and its alteration in chickens with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. Eur J Immunol 20:2155-2159
111. Woloski BM, Smith EM, Meyer III WJ, Fuller GM, Blalock JE 1985 Corticotropin-releasing activity of monokines. Science 230:1035-1037
112. Olsen NJ, Nicholson WE, Debold CR, Orth DN 1992 Lymphocyte-derived adrenocorticotropin is insufficient to stimulate adrenal steroidogenesis in hypophysectomized rats. Endocrinology 130:2113-2119
113. Pflüger KH, Gramse M, Groop C, Havemann K 1981 Ectopic ACTH production with autoantibody formation in a patient with acute myeloblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med 305:1632-1634
114. March CJ, Mosley B, Larsen A, Cerretti DP, Braedt G, Price V, Gillis S, Henney CS, Kronheim SR, Grabstein K, Conlon PJ, Hopp TP, Cosman D 1985 Cloning, sequence and expression of two distinct human interleukin-1 complementary DNAs. Nature 315:641-645
115. Dower SK, Kronheim SR, Hopp TP, Cantrell M, Deeley M, Gillis S, Henney CS, Urdal DL 1986 The cell surface receptors for interleukin-1 alpha and interleukin-1 beta are identical. Nature 315:641-644
116. Sapolsky R, Rivier C, Yamamoto G, Plotsky P, Vale W 1987 Interleukin 1 stimulates the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin releasing factor. Science 238:524-526
117. Partridge WM 1983 Neuropeptides and the blood-brain barrier. Annu Rev Physiol 45:73-95
118. Banks WA, Kastin AJ, Durham DA 1989 Bidirectional transport of interleukin-1 alpha across the blood-brain barrier. Brain Res Bull 23:433-437
119. Banks WA, Ortiz L, Plotkin SR, Kastin AJ 1991 Human interleukin (IL) 1 alpha, murine IL-1 alpha and murine IL-1 beta are transported from blood to brain in the mouse by a shared saturable mechanism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 259:988-996
120. Ohgo S, Nakatsuru K, Ishikawa E, Matsukura S 1991 Interleukin-1 (IL-1) stimulates the release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) from superfused rat hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal complexes (HNC) independently of the histaminergic mechanisms. Brain Res 558:217-223
121. Ohgo S, Nakatsuru K, Oki Y, Ishikawa W, Matsukura S 1991 Stimulation by interleukin-1 (IL-1) of the release of rat corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) which is independent of the cholinergic mechanisms from superfused rat hypothalamo-neurohypophysal complexes. Brain Res 560:213-219
122. Rada P, Mark GP, Vitek MP, Mangano RM, Blume AJ, Beer B, Hoebel BG 1991 Interleukin-1 beta decreases acetylcholine measured by microdialysis in the hippocampus of freely moving rats. Brain Res 550:287-290
123. Mohankumar PS, Thyagarajan S, Quadri SK 1991 Interleukin-1 stimulates the release of dopamine and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid from the hippocampus in vivo. Life Sci 48:925-930
124. Palazzolo DL, Quadri SK 1990 Interleukin-1 stimulates catecholamine release from the hypothalamus. Life Sci 47:2105-2109
125. Motta I, Cole JH, Shidani B, Truffa-Bachi P 1991 Interleukin 2/interleukin 4-independent T helper cell generation during an in vitro antigenic stimulation of mouse spleen cells in the presence of cyclosporin A. Eur J Immunol 21:551-557
126. Navarra P, Tsagarakis S, Faria MS, Rees LH, Besser GM, Grossman AB 1991 Interleukin-1 and-6 stimulate the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone-41 from rat hypothalamus in vitro via the eicosanoid cyclooxygenase pathway. Endocrinology 128:37-44
127. Sternberg EM, Hill JM, Chrousos GP, Kamilaris T, Listwak S, Gold PW, Wilder RL 1989 Inflammatory mediator-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activation is defective in streptococcal cell wall arthritis-susceptible Lewis rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:2374-2378
128. Ju G, Zhang X, Jin BQ, Huang CS 1991 Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor-containing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus by interleukin-1 in the rat. Neurosci Lett 132:151-154
129. Fagarasan MO, Aiello F, Muegge K, Durum S, Axelrod J 1990 Interleukin 1 induces beta-endorphin secretion via Fos and Jun in AtT-20 pituitary cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:7871-7874
130. Fagarasan MO, Axelrod J, Catt KJ 1990 Interleukin 1 potentiates agonist-induced secretion of beta-endophin in anterior pituitary cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 173:988-993
131. Vankelecom H, Carmeliet P, Heremans H, Van Damme J, Dijk-mans R, Billiau A, Denef C 1990 Interferon-gamma inhibits stimulated adrenocorticotropin prolactin and growth hormone secretion in normal rat anterior pituitary cell cultures. Endocrinology 126:2919-2926
132. Webster EL, Tracey DE, De Souza EB 1991 Upregulation of interleukin-1 receptor in mouse AtT-20 pituitary tumor cells following treatment with corticotropin-releasing factor. Endocrinology 129:2796-2798
133. Spangelo BL, Jarvis WD, Judd AM, MacLeod RM 1991 Induction of interleukin-6 release by interleukin-1 in rat anterior pituitary cells in vivo: evidence for an eicosanoid-dependent mechanism. Endocrinology 129:2886-2894
134. Schettini G, Florio T, Meucci O, Lolfi E, Grimaldi M, Lombardi G, Scala G, Leong D 1990 Interleukin-1-beta modulation of prolactin secretion from rat anterior pituitary cells: involvement of adenylate cyclase activity and calcium mobilization. Endocrinology 126:1435-1441
135. Ovadia H, Abramsky O, Barak V, Conforti N, Saphier D, Weidenfeld J 1989 Effect of interleukin-1 on adrenocortical activity in intact and hypothalamic deafferentiated male rats. J Exp Brain Res 76:246-249
136. Woloski BMRNJ, Smith EM, Meyer WJI, Fuller GM, Blalock JE 1985 Corticotropin-releasing activity of monokines. Science 230:1035-1037
137. Andreis P, Neri G, Belloni AS, Mazzocchi G, Kasprzak A, Nussdorfer GG 1991 Interleukin-1β enhances corticosterone secretion by acting directly on the rat adrenal gland. Endocrinology 129:53-57
138. Tominaga T, Fukata J, Naito Y, Usui T, Murakami N, Fukushima M, Nakai Y, Hirai Y, Imura H 1991 Prostaglandin-dependent in vitro stimulation of adrenocortical steroidogenesis by interleukins. Endocrinology 128:526-531
139. Minami M, Kuraishi V, Yamaguchi T, Nakai S, Hirai Y, Satoh M 1991 Immobilization stress induces interleukin-1 beta mRNA in the rat hypothalamus. Neurosci Lett 123:254-256
140. Minami M, Kuraishi Y, Satoh M 1991 Effects of kainic acid on messenger RNA levels of IL-1/3, 11-6, TNFa and LIF in the rat brain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 176:593-598
141. Minami M, Kuraishi Y, Yabuuchi K, Yamazaki A, Satoh M 1992 Induction of interleukin-Id and mRNA in rat brain after transient forebrain ischemia. J Neurochem 58:390-392
142. Yamaguchi T, Kuraishi Y, Minami M, Nakai S, Hirai Y, Satoh M 1991 Methamphetamin-induced expression of interleukin-1 beta mRNA in the rat hypothalamus. Neurosci Lett 128:90-92
143. Woodroofe MN, Sarna GS, Wadhwa M, Hayes GM, Loughlin AJ, Tinker A, Cuzner ML 1991 Detection of interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 in adult rat brain, following mechanical injury, by in vivo microdialysis: evidence of a role for microglia in cytokine production. J Neuroimmunol 33:227-236
144. Breder CD, Dinarello CA, Saper CB 1988 Interleukin-1 immu-noreactive innervation of the human hypothalamus. Science 246:249-251
145. Ban E, Milon G, Prudhomme N, Fillion G, Haour F 1991 Receptors for interleukin-1 (alpha and beta) in mouse brain: mapping on neuronal localization in hippocampus. Neuroscience 43:21-30
146. Takao T, Tracey DE, Mitchell WM, De Souza EB 1990 Interleukin-1 receptors in mouse brain: characterization and neuronal localization. Endocrinology 127:3070-3078
147. Cunningham Jr ET, Wada E, Carter DB, Tracey DE, Battey JF, De Souza EB 1991 Localization of interleukin-1 receptor messenger RNA in murine hippocampus. Endocrinology 128:2666-2668
148. Licinio J, Wong ML, Gold PW 1991 Localization of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist mRNA in rat brain. Endocrinology 129:562-564
149. Weiss JM, Sundar SK, Cierpial MA, Ritchie JC 1991 Effects of interleukin-1 infused into brain are antagonized by alpha-MSH in a dose-dependent manner. Eur J Pharmacol 192:177-179
150. Martin SM, Malkinson TJ, Veale WL, Pittman QJ 1990 Depletion of brain alpha-MSH alters prostaglandin and interleukin fever in rats. Brain Res 526:351-354
151. Sundar SK, Becker KJ, Cierpial MA, Carpenter MD, Rankin LA, Fleener SL, Ritchie JC, Simson PE, Weiss JM 1989 Intracerebro-ventricular infusion of interleukin 1 rapidly decreases peripheral cellular immune responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:6398-6402
152. Brown R, Li Z, Vriend CY, Nirula R, Janz L, Falk J, Nance DM, Dyck D, Greenberg AH 1991 Suppression of splenic macrophage interleukin-1 secretion following intracerebroventricular injection of interleukin-1 beta: evidence for pituitary-adrenal and sympathetic control. Cell Immunol 132:84-93
153. Sundar SK, Cierpial MA, Kilts C, Ritchie JC, Weiss JM 1990 Brain IL-1-induced immunosuppression occurs through activation of both pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous system by corticotropin-releasing factor. J Neurosci 10:3701-3706
154. de Simoni MG, Sironi M, de Luigi A, Manfridi A, Mantovani A, Ghezzi P 1990 Intracerebroventricular injection of interleukin 1 induces high circulating levels of interleukin 6. J Exp Med 171:1773-1778
155. Dinarello CA 1991 Interleukin-1 and interleukin-1 antagonism. Blood 77:1627-1652
156. Dinarello CA 1984 Interleukin-1 and the pathogenesis of the acute-phase response. N Engl J Med 311:1413-1416
157. Robertson B, Dostal K, Daynes RA 1988 Neuropeptide regulation of inflammatory and immunologic responses: the capacity of al-pha-melanocyte stimulating hormone to inhibit tumor necrosis factor and IL-2-inducible biologic responses. J Immunol 140:4300-4306
158. Rivest S, Rivier C 1991 Influence of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in the alteration of neuroendocrine functions induced by intermittent footshock and interleukin. Endocrinology 129:2049-2057
159. Kalra PS, Sahu A, Kalra SP 1990 Interleukin-1 inhibits the ovarian steroid-induced luteinizing hormone surge release of hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone in rats. Endocrinology 126:2145-2152
160. Feng VJ, Shalts E, Xia L, Rivier J, Rivier C, Vale W, Ferin M 1991 An inhibitory effect of interleukin-la on basal gonadotropin release in the ovariectomized rhesus monkey: reversal by a corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist. Endocrinology 128:2077-2082
161. Kuriyama K, Hori T, Mori T, Nakashima T 1990 Actions of interferon alpha and interleukin-1 beta on the glucose-responsive neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus. Brain Res Bull 24:803-810
162. Uehara A, Sekiya C, Takasugi Y, Namiki M, Arimura A 1989 Anorexia induced by interleukin 1: involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor. Am J Physiol 257:R613-617
163. del Cerro S, Borrel J 1990 Interleukin-1 affects the behavioral dispair response in rats by an indirect mechanism which requires endogenous CRF. Brain Res 528:162-164
164. Opp M, Obal FJ, Krueger JM 1989 Corticotropin-releasing factor attenuates interleukin 1-induced sleep fever in rats. Am J Physiol 257:528-535
165. Honegger J, Spagnoli A, D’Urso R, Navarra P, Tsagaraksi S, Besser GM, Grossman AB 1991 Interleukin-1 beta modulates the acute release of growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin from rat hypothalamus in vitro whereas tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 have no effect. Endocrinology 129:1275-1282
166. Chensue SW, Terebuh PD, Remick DG, Scales WE, Kunkel SL 1991 In vivo biologic and immunohistochemical analysis of interleukin-1 alpha, beta and tumor necrosis factor during experimental endotoxinemia. Kinetics, Kupffer cell expression and glucocorticoid effects. Am] Pathol 138:395-402
167. Dallman MF, Akana SF, Cascio CS, Darlington DN, Jacobson L, Levin N 1987 Regulation of ACTH secretion: variations on a theme of B. Recent Prog Horm Res 43:113-122
168. DiBattista JA, Martel-Pelletier J, Wosu LO, Sor T, Antakly T, Pelletier JP 1991 Glucocorticoid receptor mediated inhibition of interleukin-1 stimulated neutral metalloprotease synthesis in normal human chondrocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 72:316-326
169. Hamilton JA, Piccoli DS, Cebon J, Layton JE, Rathanaswani P, McColl SR, Leizer T 1992 Cytokine regulation of colony-stimulating factor (CSF) production in cultured human synovial fibroblasts. II. Similarities and differences in the control of interleukin-1 induction of granulocyte-macrophage CSF and granulocyte-CSF production. Blood 79:1413-1419
170. Hart RP, Shadiack AM, Jonakait GM 1991 Substance P gene expression is regulated by interleukin-1 in cultured sympathetic ganglia. J Neurosci Res 29:282-291
171. Benveniste EN, Sparacio SM, Norris JG, Grenett H, E Fuller GM 1990 Induction and regulation of interleukin-6 gene expression in rat astrocytes. J Neuroimmunol 30:201-212
172. Dauchel H, Julen N, Lemercier C, Daveau M, Ozanne D, Fontaine M, Ripoche J 1990 Expression of complement alternative pathway proteins by endothelial cells. Differential regulation by interleukin 1 and glucocorticoids. Eur J Immunol 20:1669-1675
173. Marusic A, Raisz LG 1991 Cortisol modulates the actions of interleukin-1 alpha on bone formation, resorption and prostaglandin production in cultured mouse parietal bones. Endocrinology 129:2699-2706
174. Kavelaars A, Ballieux RE, Heijnen CJ 1990 Beta-endorphin secretion by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: regulation by glucocorticoids. Life Sci 46:1233-1240
175. Ron D, Wright KA, Habener JF 1990 The permissive role of glucocorticoids on interleukin-1 stimulation of angiotensinogen gene transcription is mediated by an interaction between inducible enhancers. Mol Cell Biol 10:4389-4395
176. Steel DM, Whitehead AS 1991 Heterogeneous modulation of acute-phase-reactant mRNA levels by interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-6 in the human hepatoma cell line PLC/PRF/5. Biochem J 277:477-482
177. Kavelaars A, Berkenbosch F, Croiset G, Ballieux RE, Heijnen CJ 1990 Induction of /3-endorphin secretion by lymphocytes after subcutaneous administration of corticotropin-releasing factor. Endocrinology 126:759-764
178. Hagan P, Poole S, Bristow AF 1992 Immunosuppressive activity of corticotropin-releasing factor. Inhibition of interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 production by human mononuclear cells. Biochem J 281:251-254
179. Johnson HM, Torres BA, Smith EM, Dion LD, Blalock JE 1984 Regulation of lymphokine (gamma-interferon) production by corticotropin. J Immunol 132:246-251
180. Johnson HM, Smith EM, Torres BA, Blalock JE 1982 Regulation of the in vitro antibody response by neuroendocrine hormones. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:4171-4175
181. Shipp MA, Stefano GB, D’Adamio L, Switzer SN, Howard FD, Sinisterra J, Scharrer B, Reinherz E 1990 Downregulation of enkephalin-mediated inflammatory responses by CDlO/neutral endopeptidase 24.11. Nature 347:394-396
182. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A, Klusman I, Furukawa H, Monge-Arditi G, Kabiersch A 1991 Cytokines as modulators of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. J Sterod Biochem Mol Biol 40:613-618
183. Cole RK, Kite Jr JH, Wick G, Witebsky E 1970 Inherited autoimmune thyroiditis in the fowl. Poult Sci 49:480-848
184. Wick G, Sundick RS, Albini B 1974 The Obese strain (OS) of chickens: an animal model with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 3:272-300
185. Wick G, Boyd RL, Hala K, deCarvalho L, Kofler R, Mueller PU, Cole RK 1981 The Obese strain (OS) of chickens with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis: review of recent data. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 91:109-128
186. Wick G, Moest J, Schauenstein K, Kroemer G, Dietrich H, Ziemiecki A, Faessler R, Schwarz S, Neu N, Hala K 1985 Spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis-a bird’s eye view. Immunol Today 6:359-364
187. Cole RK 1966 Hereditary hypothyroidism in domestic fowl. Genetics 13:1021-1033
188. Cole RK, Kite JH, Witebsky E 1968 Hereditary autoimmune thyroiditis in the fowl. Science 166:1317-1358
189. Rose NR, Witebsky E 1956 Studies on organ specificity. V. Changes in the thyroid glands of rabbits following active immunization with rabbit thyroid extract. J Immunol 76:417-427
190. Wick G, Kite Jr JH, Witebsky E 1970 Spontaneous thyroiditis in the Obese strain of chickens. IV. The effect of thymectomy and thymo-bursectomy on the development of the disease. J Immunol 104:54-62
191. Penhale WJ, Farmer A, McKenna RP, Irvine WJ 1973 Spontaneous thyroiditis in thymectomized irradiated Wistar rats. Clin Exp Immunol 15:225-236
192. Atkins MB, Mier JW, Parkinson DR, Gould JA, Berkman EM, Kaplan MM 1988 Hypothyroidism after treatment with interleukin 2 and lymphokine-activated killer cells. N Engl J Med 318:1557-1563
193. Faessler R, Dietrich H, Kroemer G, Schwarz S, Brezinschek HP, Wick G 1988 Diminished glucocorticoid tonus in Obese strain (OS) chickens with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis: increased plasma levels of a physiochemically unaltered corticosterone-binding globulin but normal total corticosterone plasma concentrations and normal glucocorticoid receptor contents in lymphoid tissues. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 30:1-6
194. Faessler R, Schauenstein K, Kroemer G, Schwarz S, Wick G 1986 Elevation of corticosteroid-binding globulin in Obese strain (OS) chickens: possible implications for the disturbed immunoreg-ulation and the development of spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. J Immunol 136:3657-3661
195. Hayari Y, Schauenstein K, Globerson A 1982 Avian lympho-kines. II. Interleukin-1 activity in supernatants of stimulated adherent splenocytes of chickens. Dev Comp Immunol 6:785-789
196. Hu Y, Dietrich H, Herold M, Heinrich PC, Wick G 1993 Disturbed immuno-endocrine communication via the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in autoimmune disease. Int Arch Allergy, in press
197. Ziemiecki A, Kroemer G, Mller RG, Hala K, Wick G 1988 Ev22, a new endogenous avian leukosis virus locus found in chickens with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. Arch Virol 100:267-271
198. Kroemer G, Faessler R, Hala K, Boeck G, Schauenstein K, Brezinschek HP, Neu N, Dietrich H, Jakober R, Wick G 1988 Genetic analysis of extrathyroidal features of Obese strain (OS) chickens with spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis. Eur J Immunol 18:1499-1505
199. Faessler R, Dietrich H, Kroemer G, Boeck G, Brezinschek HP, Wick G 1988 The role of testosterone in spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis of Obese strain (OS) chickens. Autoimmunity 1:97-108
200. Theofilopoulos A, Dixon FJ 1985 Murine models of SLE. Adv Immunol 37:269-300
201. Theofilopoulos AN, Kofler R, Singer PA, Dixon FJ 1989 Molecular genetics of murine lupus models. Adv Immunol 46:61-109
202. Datta SK 1989 A search for the underlying mechanisms of systemic autoimmune disease in the NZBxSWR model. Autoimmunity 51:141-156
203. Cohen PL, Eisenberg RA 1991 Lpr and gld: single gene models of systemic autoimmunity and lymphoproliferative disease. Annu Rev Immunol 9:243-269
204. Wick G, Hu YH, Gruber J 1993 Altered immunoendocrine communication in autoimmune disease. Isr J Med Sci 29:136-142
205. Donnelly RP, Levine J, Hartwell DW, Frendl G, Fenton MJ, Beller DI 1990 Aberrant regulation of IL-1 expression in macrophages from young autoimmune-prone mice. J Immunol 145:3231-3239
206. Yoshizaki K, Kuritani T, Kishimoto T 1992 Interleukin-6 in autoimmune disorders. Semin Immunol 4:155-166
207. Jacob CO, Aiso S, Michie SA, McDevitt HO, Acha-Orbea H 1990 Prevention of diabetes in non-Obese diabetic mice by tumor necrosis factor (TNF): similarities between TNF-a and interleukin 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:968-972
208. Jacob CO, McDevitt HO 1988 Tumour necrosis factor-a in murine autoimmune ‘lupus’ nephritis. Nature 331:356-358
209. Malave I, Searles RP, Montano J, Williams Jr RC 1989 Production of tumor necrosis factor/cachectin by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 89:355-361
210. Haskins K, McDuffie M 1990 Acceleration of diabetes in young NOD mice with a CD4+ islet-specific T cell clone. Science 249:1433-1436
211. Pankewycz O, Strom TB, Rubin-Kelley VE 1991 Islet-infiltrating T cell clones from non-obese diabetic mice that promote or prevent accelerated onset diabetes. Eur J Immunol 21:873-879
212. Cornall RJ, Prins JB, Todd JA, Pressey A, DeLarato NH, Wicker LS, Peterson LB 1991 Type 1 diabetes is linked to the interleukin 1 receptor and Lsh/Ity/Bcg genes on chromosome 1. Nature 353:262-265
213. Garchon HJPB, Eloy L, Bach JF 1991 Identification and mapping to chromosome 1 of a susceptibility locus for periinsulitis in nonobese diabetic mice. Nature 353:260-262
214. Prochazka M, Leiter EH, Serreze DV, Coleman DL 1987 Three recessive loci required for insulin-dependent diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice. Science 237:286-289
215. Todd JA, Aitman TJ, Cornall RJ, Ghosh S, Hall JRS, Hearne CM, Knight AM, Love JM, McAleer MA, Prins JB, Rodrigues N, Lathrop M, Pressey A, DeLarato NH, Peterson LB, Wicker LS 1991 Genetic analysis of autoimmune type 1 diabetes mellitus in mice. Nature 351:542-547
216. Jacob CO, Froner Z, Lewis GD, Koo M, Hansen JA, McDevitt HO 1990 Heritable major histocompatibility complex class II-associated differences in production of tumor necrosis factor a: relevance to genetic predisposition to systemic lupus erythematosus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:1233-1237
217. Satoh J, Seino H, Abo T, Tanaka SI, Shintani S, Ohta S, Tamura K, Sawai T, Nobunaga T, Oteki T, Kumagai K, Toyota T 1989 Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor a suppresses autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice. J Clin Invest 84:1345-1348
218. Rossini AA, Mordes JP, Like AA 1985 Immunology of insulindependent diabetes mellitus. Annu Rev Immunol 3:291-322
219. Kastern W, Lang F, Kryspin-Sorensen I 1990 The genetics of insulin dependent diabetes in BB rat. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 156:87-103
220. Derijk R, Van Rooijen N, Tilders FJ, Besedovsky HO, Del Rey A, Berkenbosch F 1991 Selective depletion of macrophages prevents pituitary-adrenal activation in response to subpyrogenic but not to pyrogenic doses of bacterial endotoxin in rats. Endocrinology 129:330-338
221. Van de Water J, Gershwin ME 1986 Avian scleroderma. An inherited fibrotic disease of White Leghorn chickens resembling progressive systemic sclerosis. Am J Pathol 120:478-482
222. Boyd RL, Wilson TJ, Van de Water J, Haapanen A, Ward HA, Gershwin ME 1991 Selective abnormalities in the thymic microenvironment associated with avian scleroderma, an inherited fibrotic disease of L 200 chickens. J Autoimmun 4:369-380
223. Gruschwitz MS, Moormann S, Kroemer G, Sgonc R, Dietrich H, Boeck G, Gershwin ME, Boyd RL, Wick G 1991 Phenotypic analysis of skin infiltrates in comparison with peripheral blood lymphocytes, spleen cells and thymocytes in early avian scleroderma. J Autoimmun 4:577-593
224. Hinrichs DJ, Roberts CM, Waxman FJ 1981 Regulation of paralytic experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in rats: susceptibility to active and passive disease reinduction. J Immunol 126:1857-1864
225. Levine S, Sowinski R, Steinmetz B 1980 Effect of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis on thymus and adrenal. Relation to remission and relapse. Proc Soc Exp Med Biol 165:218-224
226. MacPhee IAM, Antoni FA, Mason DW 1989 Spontaneous recovery of rats from experimental allergic encephalomyelitis is dependent on regulation of the immune system by endogenous corticosteroids. J Exp Med 169:431-445
227. Mason D 1991 Genetic variation in the stress response: susceptibility to experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and implications for human inflammatory disease. Immunol Today 12:57-60
228. Andreu-Sänchez JL, Moreno de Alborjn I, Marcos MAR, Sän-chez-Movilla A, Martinez AC, Kroemer G 1991 IL-2 abrogates the non-responsive state of T cells expressing a forbidden TCR repertoire and induces autoimmune disease in neonatally thymec-tomized mice. J Exp Med 173:1323-1329
229. Sarvetnick N, Shizuru J, Liggitt D, Martin L, McIntyre B, Gregory A, Parslow T, Stewart T 1990 Loss of pancreatic islet tolerance induced by β-cell expression of interferon-7. Nature 346:844-847
230. Barcena A, Toribio ML, Gutierrez-Ramos JC, Kroemer G, Martinez AC 1991 Interplay between IL-2 and IL-4 in human thymocyte differentiation: antagonism or agonism. Int Immunol 3:419-425 (erratum in Int Immunol 3:1373, 1991)
231. Fiorentino DF, Zlotnik A, Mosmann TR, Howard M, O’Garra A 1991 IL-10 inhibits cytokine production by activated macrophages. J Immunol 147:3815-3822
232. Sternberg EM, Young III WS, Bernardini R, Calogero AE, Chrousos GP, Gold PW, Wilder RL 1989 A central nervous system defect in biosynthesis of corticotropin-releasing hormone is associated with susceptibility to streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis in Lewis rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:4771-4775
233. Mason DW, MacPhee I, Antoni F 1990 The role of the neuroendocrine system in determining genetic susceptibility to experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the rat. Immunology 70:1-5
234. Takasu N, Komiya I, Nagasawa Y, Aaswa T, Yamada T 1990 Exacerbation of autoimmune thyroid dysfunction after unilateral adrenalectomy in patients with Cushing’s syndrome due to an adrenocortical adenoma. N Engl J Med 322:1708-1712
235. Wick G, Huber LA, Offner F, Winter U, Boeck G, Schauenstein K, Juergens G, Traill KN 1989 Immunodeficiency in old age. In: Hoenigsmann H (ed) Current Problems in Dermatology. Karger, Basel, pp 120-130
236. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen RS 1984 Glucocorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenocortical stress response. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81:6174-6177
237. Claman HN 1989 Glucocorticoids and autoimmune disorders. In: Schleimer RP, Claman HN, Oronsky A (eds) Anti-inflammatory Steroid Action. Basic and Clinical Aspects. Academic Press, New York, pp 409-422
238. Axelrod L 1989 Side effects of glucocorticoid therapy. In: Schleimer RP, Claman HN Oronsky A (eds) Anti-inflammatory Steroid Action. Basic and Clinical Aspects. Academic Press, New York, pp 377-408
239. Beutler BA, Milsark IW, Cerami A 1985 Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor: production, distribution and metabolic fate in vivo. Immunol 135:3972-3977
240. Castell JV, Geiger T, Gross V, Andus T, Walter E, Hirano T, Kishimoto T, Heinrich PC 1988 Plasma clearance, organ distribution and target cells of interleukin-6/hepatocyte-stimulating factor in the rat. Eur J Biochem 177:357-361
241. Dinarello CA 1992 Interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor: effector cytokines in autoimmune diseases. Semin Immunol 4:133-146
242. Jacob CO, Hwang F, Lewis GD, Stall AM 1992 Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in murine systemic lupus erythematosus disease models: implication for genetic predisposition and immune regulation. Cytokine 3:551-561
243. Jacob CO, Aiso S, Schreiber R, McDevitt HO 1992 Monoclonal anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody renders non-obese diabetic mice hypersensitive to irradiation and enhances insulitis development. Int Immunol 4:611-614
244. Campbell IL, Oxbrow L, Harrison LC 1991 Reduction in insulitis following administration of IFN-7 and TNF-a in the NOD mouse. J Autoimmun 4:249-262
245. Brennan DC, Yui MA, Wuthrich RP, Kelley VE 1989 Tumor necrosis factor IL-1 in New Zealand Black/White mice. J Immunol 143:3470-3475
246. Gordon C, Ranges GE, Greenspan JS, Wofsy D 1989 Chronic therapy with recombinant tumor necrosis factor-a in autoimmune NZB-NZW FI mice. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 52:421-434
247. Vertrees S, Wilson CA, Übungen R, Wilson D, Baskin DG, Toivola B, Jacobs C, Boiani N, Baker P, Lermark A 1991 Interleukin-1/3 regulation of islet and thyroid autoimmunity in the BB rat. J Autoimmun 4:717-732
248. Horn JT, Cole H, Bendele AM 1990 Interleukin 1 enhances the development of spontaneous arthritis in MRL/lpr mice. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 55:109-119
249. Horn J, Bendele AM, Carlson DG 1988 In vivo administration with IL-1 accelerates the development of collagen-induced arthritis in mice. J Immunol 141:834-841
250. Stimpson SA, Dalldorf FG, Otterness IG, Schwab JH 1988 Exacerbation of arthritis by IL-1 in rat joints previously injured by peptidoglycan-polysaccharide. J Immunol 140:2964-2969
251. Jacobs C, Young D, Callis G, Gillis S, Conlon PJ 1988 In vivo treatment with IL-1 reduces the severity and duration of antigen-induced arthritis in rats. J Immunol 141:2967-2974
252. Jacobs CA, Baker PE, Roux ER, Picha KS, Toivola B, Waugh S, Kennedy MK 1991 Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis is exacerbated by Il-la and suppressed by soluble 11-1 receptor. J Immunol 146:2983-2989
253. Miethke T, Wahl C, Heeg K, Echtenacher B, Krammer PH, Wagner H 1992 T cell-mediated lethal shock triggered in mice by the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B: critical role of tumor necrosis factor. J Exp Med 175:91-98
254. Tracey KJ, Fong Y, Hesse DG, Manogue KR, Lee AT, Kuo GC 1987 Anti-cachectin/TNF monoclonal antibodies prevent septic shock during lethal bacteremia. Nature 330:662-664
255. MacDonald HR, Lees RK 1990 Programmed death of autoreactive thymocytes. Nature 343:642-644
256. Murphy KM, Heimberger AB, Loh DY 1990 Induction by antigen of intrathymic apoptosis of CD4+CD8+TCR+ thymocytes in vivo. Science 250:1720-1723
257. Jones LA, Chin LT, Longo DL, Kruisbeeck AM 1990 Peripheral clonal elimination of functional T cells. Science 250:1726-1729
258. Webb S, Morris C, Sprent J 1990 Extrathymic tolerance of mature T cells: clonal elimination as a consequence of immunity. Cell 63:1249-1256
259. Kawabe Y, Ochi A 1991 Programmed cell death and extrathymic reduction of V/38+ CD4+ T cells in mice tolerant to Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B. Nature 349:245-248
260. Newell MK, Haughn LJ, Maroun CR, Julius MH 1990 Death of mature T cells by separate ligation of CD4 and the T-cell receptor for antigen. Nature 347:286-289
261. Liu Y, Janeway CAJ 1990 Interferon 7 plays a critical role in induced cell death of effector T cell: a possible third mechanism of self-tolerance. J Exp Med 172:1735-1739
262. Sambhara SR, Miller RG 1991 Programmed cell death of T cells signaled by the T cell receptor and the «3 domain of class I MHC. Science 252:1424-1427
263. Walden PR, Eisen HN 1990 Cognate peptides induce self-destruction of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:9015-9019
264. Hoffmann MW, Allison J, Miller JFAP 1992 Tolerance induction by thymic medullary epithelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:2526-2530
265. O’Hehir RE, Buelow R, Yssel H, Lamb JR 1991 Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin mediated specific non-responsiveness of human T cells. Immunol Lett 30:165-170
266. Schoenrich G, Kalinke U, Momburg F, Malissen M, Schmitt-Verhulst AM, Malissen B, Haemmerling GJ, Arnold B 1991 Down-modulation of T cell receptors on self-reactive T cells as a novel mechanism for extrathymic tolerance induction. Cell 65:293-304
267. Yeoman H, Mellor AL 1992 Tolerance and MHC restriction in transgenic mice expressing a MHC class I gene in erythroid cells. Int Immunol 4:59-65
268. Rocha B, von Boehmer H 1991 Peripheral selection of the T cell repertoire. Science 251:1225-1228
269. Wilbanks GA, Streilein JW 1992 Fluids from immune privileged sites endow macrophages with the capacity to induce antigen-specific immune deviation via a mechanism involving transforming growth factor β. Eur J Immunol 22:1031-1036
270. Sercarz E, Krzych U 1991 The distinctive specificity of antigen-specific suppressor T cells. Immunol Today 12:111-118
271. Campbell IL, Kay TWH, Oxbrow L, Harrison LC 1991 Essential role for interferon-7, and interleukin-6 in autoimmune insulindependent diabetes in NOD/Wehi mice. J Clin Invest 87:739-742
272. Green DR, Bissonnette R, Zheng H, Onda T, Echeverri F, Mogil RJ, Steele JK, Voralia M, Fotedar A 1991 Immunoregulatory activity of the T-cell receptor a chain demonstrated by retroviral gene transfer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:8475-8479