-
2
-
-
84916271835
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Novum Organum (1621)
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cited in, S.O. Funtowicz, J.R. Ravetz, Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Public Policy, Kluwer, Amsterdam
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(1990)
Aphorism 98
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Bacon1
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6
-
-
84916308473
-
-
M.J. Chadwicket al (editors), ‘Comparative environmental and health effects of different energy systems for electricity generation’ Key Issues Paper No 3,presented to the ‘Senior Expert Symposium on Electricity and Environment’ convened by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) et al in Helsinki, May 1991. Henceforth as IAEA et al.
-
-
-
-
19
-
-
84916260623
-
-
Strictly speaking, the Pigovian tax rule requires that the marginal value of an externality at the optimal level of production be applied, rather than the marginal value under prevailing market conditions
-
-
-
-
37
-
-
84916253534
-
-
Response by UK Department of Energy to Question 331, published in UK House of Commons Select Committee, HMSO, London, 1991–1992 Session, Fourth Report
-
(1992)
Renewable Energy
, vol.3
, pp. 123
-
-
-
40
-
-
0020469598
-
Energy hazards: what to measure, what to compare
-
Some commentators take ‘environmental effects’ to include sociopolitical phenomena, On the other hand, in referring to ‘social costs’, others are using instead the term ‘social’ to encompass both the natural environment and human activity
-
(1982)
Technology Review
-
-
Holdren1
-
43
-
-
0003784636
-
-
Macmillan, London, others take ‘social cost’ to refer to external costs alone, while a third group take social costs to refer only to those external costs which are not environmental external costs
-
(1920)
Economics of Welfare
-
-
Pigou1
-
44
-
-
10444235730
-
Social and environmental costs of energy systems
-
Perhaps in tacit recognition of this situation, attempts have been made to introduce the adjective, ‘societal’ to distinguish phenomena specific to human society. However, this term has now fallen prey to a similar fate, with references made to ‘societal costs’ in a sense which includes environmental externalities
-
(1976)
Annual Review of Energy
-
-
Budnitz1
Holdren2
-
46
-
-
84916284715
-
Comparative environmental and health effects of different energy systems for electricity generation
-
eg, et al., UK Health and Safety Executive, London, presented to the ‘Senior Expert Symposium on Electricity and Environment’, convened by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) etal in He, of the term ‘environment’ sometimes to include and at others to exclude human health issues. In this article ‘environment’ is taken to include health risks but exclude other social factors.
-
(1980)
Key Issues Paper No 3
-
-
Chadwick1
-
48
-
-
84916251533
-
-
These are ‘land’; ‘water’ (including marine biota); ‘air’ (including noise, aesthetics and bird life); ‘wastes / working fluids’ (dissaggregated by phase, and by originating activity); ‘general’ (including endangered species, fire and electromagnetic interference); and ‘catastrophes’ (including dam bursts and nuclear core melts).
-
-
-
-
67
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84916292535
-
-
The discrepancies are discussed in more detail in, Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, Brighton, unpublished seminar paper
-
(1992)
The external costs debate
-
-
Stirling1
-
72
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-
84916261165
-
-
For instance, the notion of ‘risk’ is conventionally taken to subsume that of ‘impact’, where risk is often regarded as a function (usually the product) of the probability and the magnitude of an impact
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
84916269519
-
Nuclear safety: an international perspective
-
IAEA News Features, Vienna
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(1988)
IAEA News Features
-
-
-
79
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-
0003673417
-
-
Eg, US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC, WASH-1400, commissioned by US Atomic Energy Commission
-
(1974)
Reactor Safety Study
-
-
Rasmussen1
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81
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-
85045806297
-
Energy: calculating the risks
-
Eg
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(1979)
Science
, vol.204
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-
Holdren1
-
84
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-
84916259918
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Incorporating externalities in least cost planning: the use of control costs, standards, and multi-attribute approaches
-
cited in, O. Hohmeyer, R. Ottinger, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe
-
(1990)
Proceedings of a German-American Workshop
, pp. 199
-
-
Fritsche1
-
86
-
-
84916283359
-
-
There important important distinction here between comparative risk assessment (CRA), which is discussed in the text, and quantitative or probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), which addressses individual technical systems. Although suffering its own difficulties
-
-
-
-
88
-
-
84916263581
-
-
This set of questions is neither comprehensive in scope, nor exhaustive in depth. It would be possible to justify both decreasing or increasing the number of dimensions by respectively aggregating or further disaggregating individual factors. The efficacy of the particular distinctions made will depend on the purpose of the analysis and the degree of resolution required, and are discussed more fully elsewhere
-
-
-
-
89
-
-
84916286044
-
-
all reviewed in, Although different groups of dimensions are discussed in different sources, none extends discussion over the entire range given here. The principal sources used are as follows
-
(1992)
Technology choice for electricity supply
-
-
Stirling1
-
95
-
-
84916258443
-
Comments on energy risk analysis
-
presented to the, M.J. Chadwick et al., convened by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) et al in Helsinki, Comparative environmental and health effects of different energy systems for electricity generation, Henceforth as IAEA et al
-
(1991)
Senior Expert Symposium on Electricity and Environment
-
-
Fritzsche1
-
98
-
-
84916309903
-
Health and environmental risks of energy systems
-
M.J. Chadwick et al., convened by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) et al in Helsinki, Comparative environmental and health effects of different energy systems for electricity generation, Henceforth as IAEA et al, J.P. Holdren Energy hazards: what to measure, what to compare Technology Review February 1982
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(1991)
presented to the ‘Senior Expert Symposium on Electricity and Environment’
-
-
Hamilton1
-
108
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-
84919156429
-
Social benefit versus technological risk what is our society willing to pay for progress
-
(1969)
Science
, vol.165
-
-
Starr1
-
111
-
-
84916251224
-
-
Although all three spatial dimensions may each be measured in units of linear extension, the totality of an object is not adequately described unless each dimension is disaggregated. Values for the volume of an object express its magnitude, but do not convey all-important information on its form. In more technical terms, environmental performance is more a vector than a scalar quantity.
-
-
-
-
114
-
-
84916287784
-
-
Indeed, Johansson goes as far as asserting that [t]he decisionmaker must implicitly or explicitly transform all values to a single ‘dimension to compare them’
-
-
-
-
119
-
-
0025107608
-
Valuing environmental damage
-
Indeed, Johansson goes as far as asserting that [t]he decisionmaker must implicitly or explicitly transform all values to a single ‘dimension to
-
(1990)
Oxford Review of Economic Policy
, vol.6
, Issue.1
, pp. 34
-
-
Johansson1
-
121
-
-
84916297106
-
The valuation of environmental externalities in utility regulation
-
O. Hohmeyer, R. Ottinger, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, In some cases proposed legislation is considered as well as implemented measures. This is sometimes referred to as ‘revealed political preference’, and is seen to be broadly subject to the same contraints as abatement costs
-
(1990)
Proceedings of a German-American Workshop
-
-
Chernick1
Caverhill2
-
125
-
-
84916276055
-
-
There exists a further confusion in the literature, with ‘control’ costs sometimes taken to be the same as ‘abatement’ costs, and at others to subsume ‘mitigation’ costs as well.
-
-
-
-
127
-
-
84916259918
-
Incorporating externalities in least cost planning: the use of control costs, standards, and multi-attribute approaches
-
cited in, O. Hohmeyer, R. Ottinger, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, On the other hand, mitigation costs may exceed abatement costs in cases where available additional control measures are relatively cheap and effective.
-
(1990)
Proceedings of a German-American Workshop
, pp. 199
-
-
Fritsche1
-
132
-
-
0000014470
-
Conservation reconsidered
-
‘option’ values and ‘bequest’ values(, Interestingly, different opinions are expressed at different times by the same authorities
-
(1967)
America Economic Review
, vol.57
-
-
Krutilla1
-
135
-
-
84916282965
-
-
For instance, Smith and Krutilla take ‘direct’ measurement to apply only where there exists a market for associated resources or services, with hedonic and travel costs classed as ‘indirect’ methods. This is then contrasted with a third class of technique referring to ‘expressed preferences’
-
-
-
-
137
-
-
84916288790
-
Environmental Economics: a survey
-
A third variation is provided by, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC, who term contingent valuation methods such as those described at (3) above ‘direct questioning’ techniques and contrast them with ‘indirect market methods’ which include the use of hedonic markets mentioned at (2).
-
(1991)
Discussion Paper QE90-12-REV
-
-
Cropper1
Oates2
-
138
-
-
84916259918
-
Incorporating externalities in least cost planning: the use of control costs, standards, and multi-attribute approaches
-
In a further deviation, O. Hohmeyer, R. Ottinger, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe
-
(1990)
Proceedings of a German-American Workshop
, pp. 199
-
-
Fritsche1
-
139
-
-
0003956461
-
-
effectively reverses, OECD, Paris, Henceforth as OECD, 1989, taking the object of the ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’ attention to refer to the environmental damage itself, rather than the economic agents or markets with respect to which the utility of the affected environmental benefits is defined.
-
(1989)
Environmental Policy Benefits: Monetary Valuation
-
-
Pearce1
Markandya2
-
140
-
-
84916270186
-
-
Indeed, Johansson goes as far as asserting that [t]he decisionmaker must implicitly or explicitly transform all values to a single ‘dimension to compare them’
-
-
-
-
145
-
-
84916276728
-
Social Costs of Energy Consumption: External Effects of Electricity Generation in the Federal Republic of Germany
-
Eg, Springer, Berlin, for instance, variously refer to studies using ‘indirect’ techniques, contingent valuation and hedonic markets for most of the classes of environmental effect which they identify, They also consider travel costs for some aquatic effects; mitigation costs for global warming (afforestation); acid rain (liming); and discuss control costs for global warming (carbon dioxide scrubbers); and other aquatic effects (closed cycle cooling). Similarly, Hohmeyer op cit, reference 15, either draws on, or proposes, techniques involving mitigation costs, hedonic markets and contingent valuation as well as indirect techniques.
-
(1988)
prepared for DC XII of the European Commission by the Fraunhofer Institut fuer Systemtechnik und Innovationforschung
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
150
-
-
0026440286
-
Renewables and the full costs of energy
-
acknowledge the relevance of the aesthetic impacts of wind power, but do not attempt to value them. This effectively excludes a factor which is often seen as being the most serious single class of environmental harm caused by wind power.
-
(1992)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
158
-
-
85045806297
-
Energy: calculating the risks
-
Eg
-
(1979)
Science
, vol.204
-
-
Holdren1
-
162
-
-
84916307119
-
External costs of electricity using coal
-
Paris, they seem to be somewhat exceptional. Some even seem to assert that it is inappropriate to consider effects not arising directly from the electricity generation stage in the fuel cycle
-
(1992)
paper presented to IEA/OECD Workshop
-
-
Eyre1
Holland2
-
164
-
-
84916296394
-
Social costs of energy
-
(1990)
Atom
, Issue.403
-
-
Jones1
-
167
-
-
84916282716
-
Abatement cost and energy resource planning: revealing social preferences
-
paper presented at, prepared for the NYSERDA and US DOE by Pace University Center for Environmental Legal Studies, Paris
-
(1992)
IEA/OECD Workshop
-
-
Jaccard1
-
169
-
-
84916256618
-
-
Pearce and Markandya point out that, where respondents indicate a willingness to pay to avoid compulsory seatbelt legislation, CV results might be interpreted as placing a negative value on life
-
-
-
-
170
-
-
0003956461
-
-
Eg, OECD, Paris, Henceforth as OECD, 1989, In order to understand this, the authors suggest that it is necessary to introduce consideration of the question of voluntariness. Yet if it is necessary to qualify CV by consideration of one of the dimensions resolved in this article, there seems no reason to exclude others.
-
(1989)
Environmental Policy Benefits: Monetary Valuation
, pp. 35
-
-
Pearce1
Markandya2
-
176
-
-
0003241075
-
Economics and social psychology in amenity valuation
-
The profligate use of the term ‘law’ in economics is contrasted by, G.L. Peterson, B.L. Driver, R. Gregory et al., Venture, Philadelphia, PA, with the more cautious practice of physicists, to whom even such predictive triumphs as quantum mechanics and general relativity are ascribed only the
-
(1988)
Amenity Resource Valuation: Integrating Economics with Other Disciplines
-
-
Heberlein1
-
186
-
-
84916298383
-
-
Including issues such as the order in which questions are posed, the images accompanying pictures of the amenities to be valued, the vocabulary of written descriptions, the start-points for iterative bidding, the ‘payment vehicle’ indentified (such as taxation, charges etc), the respondents familiarity with the procedure, their identification with social constituencies and the habit of using other respondents' responses as ‘anchors’ for their own
-
-
-
-
190
-
-
84910845139
-
A camel is a camel is …
-
The recommendation by one CV advocate, G.L. Peterson et al., Venture, Philadelphia, PA, that refusals by respondents to accept finite compensation should be treated as ‘measurement error’ illuminates the lengths to which some practitioners may go. The fact that ‘closed-ended’ surveys (where respondents are prompted) tend to produce more consistent results than ‘open-ended’ surveys (where they are allowed to quote their own values)
-
(1988)
Amenity Resource Valuation: Integrating Economics with Other Disciplines
-
-
Randal1
-
191
-
-
84916288790
-
Environmental Economics: a survey
-
Discussion Paper QE90-12-REV, Washington, DC, is hardly a comfort, suggesting the scope that exists for analysts to project their own expectations.
-
(1991)
Resources for the Future
, pp. 62
-
-
Cropper1
Oates2
-
194
-
-
0002632228
-
Knowing what you want: measuring labile values
-
after, T.S. Wallsten, Erlbaum, New York, Nevertheless, some advocates are outspoken in defence of CV. As if all critiques of the approach are ultimately ethical rather than analytical, it has been urged of non-economists ‘#…; that they attempt to contribute by suggesting more effective ways to perform [CV] within the [existing] framework, rather than by telling economists that they really ought to abandon [this] in favour of some alternative but equally non- compelling ethical framework’… ‘it is best to treat the welfare-economic basis of [CV] as non- negotiable’
-
(1980)
Cognitive Processes in Choice and Decision Behaviour
-
-
Fischoff1
Slovic2
Lichtenstein3
-
198
-
-
0026440286
-
Renewables and the full costs of energy
-
Eg, Eg, Energy Policy 20 4 1992
-
(1990)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
200
-
-
84916254977
-
the environmental costs and benefits of all energy technologies should be at the forefront of the Department's [of Energy] thinking in future
-
Who make statements such as that by the UK Parliamentary Select Committee on Energy to the effect that, HMSO, London, 1988–1989 Session, Sixth Report, by the UK Minister with responsibility for renewable energy, who said that he felt the assessment of externalities to be ‘one of the critical issues in environment and energy policy in the 1990s worldwide’
-
(1989)
Energy Policy Implications of the Greenhouse Effect
, vol.1
-
-
-
201
-
-
84916296873
-
Renewable Energy
-
published in, Valuation has been particularly strongly advocated by proponents of renewable energy (eg British Wind Energy Association, 'Submission to the British Government Renewable Energy Advisory Croup, October 1991) in a fashion which may hold them hostages to fortune as its analytical deficiencies become evident.
-
(1992)
Acta Virol
, vol.3
, pp. xix
-
-
Moynihan1
-
205
-
-
84916261691
-
-
Perhaps in tacit recognition of this situation, attempts have been made to introduce the adjective, ‘societal’ to distinguish phenomena specific to human society. However, this term has now fallen prey to a similar fate, with references made to ‘societal costs’ in a sense which includes environmental externalities
-
-
-
-
207
-
-
84916284517
-
-
Perhaps in tacit recognition of this situation, attempts have been made to introduce the adjective, ‘societal’ to distinguish phenomena specific to human society. However, this term has now fallen prey to a similar fate, with references made to ‘societal costs’ in a sense which includes environmental externalities
-
-
-
-
217
-
-
84916246873
-
Novum Organum
-
S.O. Funtowicz, J.R. Ravetz, Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Public Policy, Kluwer, Amsterdam
-
(1990)
Aphorism 98
-
-
Bacon1
-
237
-
-
0042185312
-
How certain is that environmental risk estimate?
-
(1992)
Resources
, Issue.107
-
-
Talcott1
-
241
-
-
0026440286
-
Renewables and the full costs of energy
-
presents results in four significant figures
-
(1990)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
242
-
-
0026440286
-
Renewables and the full costs of energy
-
For instance
-
(1988)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
243
-
-
0026440286
-
Renewables and the full costs of energy
-
For instance
-
(1990)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
244
-
-
0026440286
-
Renewables and the full costs of energy
-
For instance, present no range at all in some final results
-
(1992)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hohmeyer1
-
256
-
-
0004231811
-
-
Existence’ values are sometimes distinguished from eg, Earthscan, London, Indeed, Johansson goes as far as asserting that [t]he decisionmaker must implicitly or explicitly transform all values to a single ‘dimension to compare them’
-
(1989)
Blueprint for a Green Economy
, pp. 61
-
-
Pearce1
Markandya2
Barbier3
-
258
-
-
0000014470
-
Conservation reconsidered
-
‘option’ values and ‘bequest’ values(, Interestingly, different opinions are expressed at different times by the same authorities
-
(1967)
America Economic Review
, vol.57
-
-
Krutilla1
-
261
-
-
84916300367
-
-
Valuation by indirect means, hedonic markets, or travel, mitigation or abatement costs all fail even more comprehensively than contingent valuation in this respect. Likewise, attempts to apply indices other than monetary value, such as the rate of solar energy conversion by photosynthesis by unit area for a given ecosystem
-
-
-
-
263
-
-
0023507526
-
The economic value of wetlands systems
-
face question marks over the suitability of the chosen index as a measure of the benefits secured by nonhumans. In any case, if they are ultimately to be converted t simply defer the problem of calibrating human and non-human utility.
-
(1987)
Journal of Environmental Management
, vol.24
-
-
Farber1
Costanza2
-
264
-
-
84916258779
-
-
The author prefers this term to ‘anthropocentric’ because use of the latter tacitly implies that certain perspectives are somehow innate to ‘human nature’ and thus common to all past, existing and possible future human societies. So momentous an assertion requires demonstration rather than a priori assumption.
-
-
-
-
265
-
-
84916269648
-
-
This is well illustrated by Johansson, who states that ‘[1]f a forest which is used as a recreation area is cleared, those owning the forest will gain while those visiting the area or those concerned about an endangered species living there will lose’
-
-
-
-
266
-
-
84916263609
-
-
In this statement, (1) no value is attached to the preferences of non-human species, (2) value is attached only to individual organisms where they are of endangered species, and (3) it is implied that economic values may in any case only be attributed in respect of those human beings who happen to be ‘concerned’.
-
(1990)
Oxford Review of Economic Policy
, vol.6
, Issue.1
, pp. 34
-
-
-
267
-
-
0004231811
-
-
Eg, Earthscan, London, admit two different definitions of the term ‘priceless’. The first (the one on which they dwell and to which they return in their conclusion) takes it to mean ‘of infinite price’. They dismiss this objection by citing as a precedent the routine practice of valuing human life for the purposes of health policy. Their second definition of ‘priceless’ (meaning ‘beyond price’) they acknowledged to be ‘more appealing’ and it remains essentially uncontested as an objection to valuation. Dictionary definitions do not lend support to the authors emphasis on the ‘infinite price’ interpretation, holding instead that ‘priceless’ means ‘above, beyond, without price; invaluable’
-
(1989)
Blueprint for a Green Economy
-
-
Pearce1
Markandya2
Barbier3
-
271
-
-
84916292715
-
-
Certain aspects of certain effects may, of course, quite readily be assigned money values, such as a loss in quantity or value of traded goods or accelerated deterioration of replaceable artificial materials.
-
-
-
-
272
-
-
84916294621
-
-
As is the case, for example, when advocates of valuation point to the possibility of deriving ex post facto monetary values through the analysis of past policy decisions which were not predicated on valuation.
-
-
-
-
273
-
-
84916277510
-
-
The results displayed are, in decreasing order, those of: R.A.D. Ferguson, as reported in House of Commons, HMSO, London, and confirmed by personal communication, November 1991
-
(1992)
Renewable Energy
, vol.3
, pp. xix
-
-
-
281
-
-
84916285040
-
Application of solar thermal technology in reducing greenhouse gas emissions—opportunities and benefits for Australian industry
-
ANUTECH Pty, HMSO, London, reported in House of Commons
-
(1991)
Renewable Energy
, vol.3
, pp. xix
-
-
Hagen1
Kaneff2
-
288
-
-
84916256933
-
-
This is certainly true of the studies whose results are displayed in Figure 1.
-
-
-
-
289
-
-
84916292535
-
-
The discrepancies are discussed in more detail in, Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, Brighton, unpublished seminar paper, Figure 2 is based on the results of the sample literature referenced in this article. It is not comprehensive and reflects work that is still in progress. Again, it is illustrative rather than definitive.
-
(1992)
The external costs debate
-
-
Stirling1
-
290
-
-
84916251548
-
-
Indeed, such a phenomenon might be seen to reflect nothing more than one specific example of the social construction of knowledge—already well documented in other areas of science
-
-
-
-
293
-
-
0003878770
-
-
In this respect, the salient difference between valuation and other techniques is that the indices employed by comparative risk assessment, environmental impact assessment and multicriteria analysis are not converted directly and literally into fiscal instruments as is required of valuation results under a Pigovian tax rule. Although the results of other approaches may form the basis for regulatory measures, there exist no a priori contraints on the values that they may take if they are to be usable. Only with valuation, do analysts know that, unless their results lie within a certain range, they are less likely to be taken seriously by policy makers. Where the declared purpose of valuation is to provide a rationale for fiscal intervention, than, it seems that a powerful determinant of results is created which might be described as an unconscious ‘price imperative’.
-
(1982)
Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science
-
-
Barnes1
Edge2
-
295
-
-
84916309372
-
-
Consideration of the environment as a source of extractive resources was a key component in the approaches of 19th century economists such as Ricardo, extended by others, such as John Stuart Mill, to encompass aspects of the quality of life
-
-
-
-
300
-
-
84916251962
-
Blind men and elephants: prospects for integrating disparate approaches to natural resource values
-
G.L. Peterson, B.L. Driver, R. Gregory, Venture, Philadelphia, PA, Others state, perhaps somewhat euphemistically, that ‘economists are extending their hands across the fence in a request for help and an offer to co-, G.L. Peterson B.L. Driver R. Gregory Amenity Resource Valuation: Integrating Economics with Other Disciplines 1988 Venture Philadelphia, PA
-
(1988)
Amenity Resource Valuation: Integrating Economics with Other Disciplines
-
-
Reed-Johnson1
-
302
-
-
44049122845
-
A pilot environmental index for the UK in the 1980s
-
In a manner perhaps developing on approaches such as that suggested by
-
(1992)
Energy Policy
, vol.20
, Issue.4
-
-
Hope1
Parker2
Peake3
-
303
-
-
84916292535
-
-
A rudimentary attempt at a survey is currently being made by the author, Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, Brighton, unpublished seminar paper
-
(1992)
The external costs debate
-
-
Stirling1
-
304
-
-
84916300425
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A point recognized, for instance, by the UK Department of Environment, who acknowledge that valuation is unlikely to supersede the assignment of political weightings
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HMSO, London, Further grounds for official UK caution over valuation are elaborated by N. Eyre of ETSU, who holds that cost-benefit analysis is appropriate only for marginal effects, breaking down where effects involve positive feedback, low probability catastrophes or significant social change
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(1991)
Policy Appraisal and the Environment: a Guide for Government Departments
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To the extent that the figures discussed are rationalized more with reference to specific environmental policy targets and broader economic considerations than to valuation results eg
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For whom the answer to the subtitled query with which this paper began might most appropriately be expressed in dollars!
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