Environmental sex determination in reptiles: Ecology, evolution, and experimental design

Quarterly Review of Biology

Volumn 66, Issue 2, 1991, Pages 149-179

  Janzen, Fredric J ^a   Paukstis, Gary L ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHISBAENIA; CROCODYLIDAE (ALL CROCODILES); REPTILIA; SERPENTES; SPHENODON PUNCTATUS; SQUAMATA; TESTUDINES; VERTEBRATA;

REPTILE; SEX DETERMINATION;

ANIMAL; ECOLOGY; ENVIRONMENT; EVOLUTION; FEMALE; MALE; PHYSIOLOGY; REPTILE; REVIEW; SEX DETERMINATION; SEX DIFFERENTIATION;

ANIMAL; ECOLOGY; ENVIRONMENT; EVOLUTION; FEMALE; MALE; REPTILES; SEX DETERMINATION (ANALYSIS); SEX DIFFERENTIATION; SUPPORT, NON-U.S. GOV'T; SUPPORT, U.S. GOV'T, NON-P.H.S.; SUPPORT, U.S. GOV'T, P.H.S.;

EID: 0026358802     PISSN: 00335770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/417143     Document Type: Article

References (209)

1. Ackerman, R. A. 1977. The respiratory gas exchange of sea turtle nests (Chelonia, Caretta). Respir. Physiol., 31: 19-38.
2. Ackerman, R. A., R. C. Seagrave, R. Dmi'el, and A. Ar. 1985. Water and heat exchange between parchment-shelled reptile eggs and their surroundings. Copeia, 1985: 703-711.
3. Adams, J., P. Greenwood, and C. Naylor. 1987. Evolutionary aspects of environmental sex determination. Int. J. Invertebr. Reprod. Develop., 11: 123-136.
4. Alho, C. J. R., T. M. S. Danni, and L. F. M. Padua. 1984. Influencia da temperatura de incubação do sexo da tartaruga da Amazônia Podocnemis expansa (Testudinata: Pelomedusidae). Rev. Brasil. Biol., 44: 305-311.
5. _, _, and _. 1985. Temperature-dependent sex determination in Podocnemis expansa (Testudinata: Pelomedusidae). Biotropica, 17: 75-78.
6. Arnemann, J., U. Bruggemeier, M. Carballo, G. Chalepakis, B. Gross, E. Espel, K. Mugele, B. Pina, G. Posseckert, E. Slater, T. Willmann, and M. Beato. 1988. Differential gene regulation by steroid hormones. In G. Ringold (ed.), Steroid Hormone Action, pp. 185-192. Alan R. Liss, New York.
7. Beuchat, C. A. 1988. Temperature effects during gestation in a viviparous lizard. J. Therm. Biol., 13: 135-142.
8. Bickham, J. W., and J. L. Carr. 1983. Taxonomy and phylogeny of the higher categories of cryptodiran turtles based on a cladistic analysis of chromosomal data. Copeia, 1983: 918-932.
9. Bogart, M. H. 1987. Sex determination: a hypothesis based on steroid ratios. J. Theor. Biol., 128: 349-357.
10. Bourne, A. R., J. L. Taylor, and T. G. Watson. 1986. Effect of temperature on the seasonal production of testicular androgens, in vitro, by the lizard Tiliqua rugosa. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 85A: 527-530.
11. Bowler, J. K. 1977. Longevity of reptiles and amphibians in North American collections. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles Misc. Publ. Herpetol. Circular, No. 6.
12. Bull, J. J. 1980. Sex determination in reptiles. Q. Rev. Biol., 55: 3-21.
13. _. 1983. Evolution of Sex Determining Mechanisms. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park.
14. _. 1985a. Sex ratio and nest temperature in turtles: comparing field and laboratory data. Ecology, 66: 1115-1122.
15. _. 1985b. Sex determining mechanisms: an evolutionary perspective. Experientia, 41: 1285-1296.
16. _. 1987a. Temperature-sensitive periods of sex determination in a lizard: similarities with turtles and crocodilians. J. Exp. Zool., 241: 143-148.
17. _. 1987b. Temperature-dependent sex determination in reptiles: validity of sex diagnosis in hatchling lizards. Can. J. Zool., 65: 1421-1424.
18. _. 1989. Evolution and variety of sex-determining mechanisms in amniote vertebrates. In S. S. Wachtel (ed.), Evolutionary Mechanisms in Sex Determination, pp. 57-65. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
19. Bull, J. J., and M. G. Bulmer. 1989. Longevity enhances selection of environmental sex determination. Heredity, 63: 315-320.
20. Bull, J. J., W. H. N. Gutzke, and M. G. Bulmer. 1988. Nest choice in a captive lizard with temperature-dependent sex determination. J. Evol. Biol, 2: 177-184.
21. Bull, J. J., W. H. N. Gutzke, and D. Crews. 1988. Sex reversal by estradiol in three reptilian orders. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 70: 425-428.
22. Bull, J. J., D. M. Hillis, and S. O'Steen. 1988. Mammalian ZFY sequences exist in reptiles regardless of sex-determining mechanism. Science, 242: 567-569.
23. Bull, J. J., J. M. Legler, and R. C. Vogt. 1985. Non-temperature dependent sex determination in two suborders of turtles. Copeia, 1985: 784-786.
24. Bull, J. J., R. G. Moon, and J. M. Legler. 1974. Male heterogamety in kinostemid turtles (genus Staurotypus). Cytogenet. Cell Genet., 13: 419-425.
25. Bull, J. J., and R. C. Vogt. 1979. Temperature-dependent sex determination in turtles. Science, 206: 1186-1188.
26. _, and _. 1981. Temperature-sensitive periods of sex determination in emydid turtles. J. Exp. Zool., 218: 435-440.
27. Bull, J. J., R. C. Vogt, and M. G. Bulmer. 1982. Heritability of sex ratio in turtles with environmental sex determination. Evolution, 36: 333-341.
28. Bull, J. J., R. C. Vogt, and C. J. McCoy. 1982. Sex determining temperatures in turtles: a geographic comparison. Evolution, 36: 326-332.
29. Burger, J. 1976. Temperature relationships in nests of the northern diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin terrapin. Herpetologica, 32: 412-418.
30. Burger, J., and R. T. Zappalorti. 1988. Effects of incubation temperature on sex ratios in pine snakes: differential vulnerability of males and females. Am. Nat., 132: 492-505.
31. Bustard, H. R. 1972. Sea Turtles: Natural History and Conservation. Taplinger, New York.
32. Carr, J. L., and J. W. Bickham. 1981. Sex chromosomes of the Asian black pond turtle Siebenrockiella crassicollis (Testudines: Emydidae). Cytogenet. Cell Genet., 31: 178-183.
33. Carroll, R. L. 1969. Origin of reptiles. In C. Gans (ed.), Biology of the Reptilia, pp. 1-44. Academic Press, London.
34. _. 1988. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. W. H. Freeman, New York.
35. Charnier, M. 1966. Action de la température sur la sex-ratio chez l'embryon d'Agama agama (Agamidae, Lacertilien). Soc. Biol. Ouest Afr., 160: 620-622.
36. Charnov, E. L., and J. Bull. 1977. When is sex environmentally determined? Nature, 266: 828-830.
37. Cherfas, J., and J. Gribbin. 1984. The Redundant Male. Pantheon, New York.
38. Crews, D., and J. J. Bull. 1987. Evolutionary insights from reptilian sexual differentiation. In F. P. Haseltine, M. F. McClure, and E. H. Goldberg (eds.), Genetic Markers of Sex Differentiation, pp. 11-26. Plenum, New York.
39. Crews, D., J. J. Bull, and A. J. Billy. 1988. Sex determination and sexual differentiation in reptiles. In J. M. A. Sitsen (ed.), Handbook of Sexology, Vol. 6: The Pharmacology and Endocrinology of Sexual Function, pp. 98-121. Elsevier Science Publ., New York.
40. Crews, D., T. Wibbels, and W. H. N. Gutzke. 1989. Action of sex steroid hormones on temperature-induced sex determination in the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 76: 159-166.
41. Dalrymple, G. H., J. C. Hampp, and D. J. Wellins. 1985. Male-biased sex ratio in a cold nest of a hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). J. Herpetol., 19: 158-159.
42. Deeming, D. C., and M. W. J. Ferguson. 1988. Environmental regulation of sex determination in reptiles. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Land. B, 322: 19-39.
43. Deeming, C., and M. Ferguson. 1989a. In the heat of the nest. New Sci., 1657: 33-38.
44. _, and _. 1989b. The mechanism of temperature dependent sex determination in crocodilians: a hypothesis. Am. Zool., 29: 973-985.
45. Demas, S., M. Duronslet, S. Wachtel, C. Caillouet, and D. Nakamura. 1990. Sex-specific DNA in reptiles with temperature sex determination. J. Exp. Zool., 253: 319-324.
46. Dimond, M. T. 1979. Sex differentiation and incubation temperature in turtles. Am. Zool., 19: 981 (Abstr.).
47. _. 1983. Sex of turtle hatchlings as related to incubation temperature. In Proc. 6th Reptile Symposium on Captive Propagation and Husbandry, pp. 88-101. Zoological Consortium, Thurmont.
48. Dimond, M. T., P. Mohanty-Hejmadi, and M. Behera. 1987. Effect on sex differentiation of daily temperature fluctuations during incubation of the olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea): conservation of an adaptational physiological mechanism. Fed. Proc., 46: 343 (Abstr.).
49. Dunham, A. E., D. B. Miles, and D. N. Reznick. 1988. Life history patterns in squamate reptiles. In C. Gans and R. B. Huey (eds.), Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 16, pp. 441-522. Alan R. Liss, New York.
50. Dutton, P. H., C. P. Whitmore, and N. Mrosovsky. 1985. Masculinisation of leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea hatchlings from eggs incubated in styrofoam boxes. Biol. Conserv., 31: 249-264.
51. Ehrengart, W. 1971. On the breeding and rearing of Greek tortoises. Salamandra, 7: 71-80.
52. Eichenberger, P. 1981. Smaragdhagedissen kweken op bestelling. Lacerta, 39: 72-77.
53. Engel, W., B. Klemme, and M. Schmid. 1981. H-Y antigen and sex determination in turtles. Differentiation, 20: 152-156.
54. Ewert, M. A., and C. E. Nelson. 1987. Sex determination in turtles: taxonomic and developmental diversity: empirical aspects. In Proc. Joint Annu. Meeting of SSAR, HL, and Comite Herpetol. Nacional, 9-15 August (Abstr.), p. 74. Institute de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Veracruz.
55. _, and _. 1989. Temperature-dependent sex determination and pattern II in turtles. In T. Halliday, J. Baker, and L. Hosie (eds.), First World Congress of Herpetology, 11-19 September (Abstr.). University of Kent, Canterbury.
56. _, and _. 1991. Sex determination in turtles: diverse patterns and some possible adaptive values. Copeia, 1991: 50-69.
57. Ferguson, M. W. J., and T. Joanen. 1982. Temperature of egg incubation determines sex in Alligator mississippiensis. Nature, 296: 850-853.
58. _, and _. 1983. Temperature-dependent sex determination in Alligator mississippiensis. J. Zool., 200: 143-177.
59. Forbes, T. R. 1940. A note on reptilian sex ratios. Copeia, 1940: 132.
60. Gaffney, E. S., and P. A. Meylan. 1988. Aphylogeny of turtles. In M. J. Benton (ed.), The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, Volume 1: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds; Systematics Association Special Volume No. 35A, pp. 157-219. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
61. Georges, A. 1988. Sex determination is independent of incubation temperature in another chelid turtle, Chelodina longicollis. Copeia, 1988: 248-254.
62. Gibbons, J. W. 1970. Sex ratio in turtles. Res. Popul. Ecol., 12: 252-254.
63. Gorman, G. C. 1973. The chromosomes of the Reptilia, a cytotaxonomic interpretation. In A. B. Chiarelli and E. Capanna (eds.), Cytotaxonomy and Vertebrate Evolution, pp. 349-424. Academic Press, London.
64. Gutzke, W. H. N. 1987. Sex determination and sexual differentiation in reptiles. Herpetol. J., 1: 122-125.
65. Gutzke, W. H. N., and J. J. Bull. 1986. Steroid hormones reverse sex in turtles. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 64: 368-372.
66. Gutzke, W. H. N., and D. B. Chymiy. 1988. Sensitive periods during embryogeny for hormonally induced sex determination in turtles. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 71: 265-267.
67. Gutzke, W. H. N., and D. Crews. 1988. Embryonic temperature determines adult sexuality in a reptile. Nature, 332: 832-834.
68. Gutzke, W. H. N., and G. C. Packard. 1987. The influence of temperature on eggs and hatchlings of Blanding's turtles, Emydoidea blandingii. J. Herpetol., 21: 161-163.
69. Gutzke, W. H. N., G. C. Packard, M. J. Packard, and T. J. Boardman. 1987. Influence of the hydric and thermal environments on eggs and hatchlings of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta). Herpetologica, 43: 393-404.
70. Gutzke, W. H. N., and G. L. Paukstis. 1983. Influence of the hydric environment on sexual differentiation of turtles. J. Exp. Zool., 226: 467-469.
71. _, and _. 1984. A low threshold temperature for sexual differentiation in the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta. Copeia, 1984: 546-547.
72. Halliday, T. R., and K. Adler. 1986. The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. Facts on File, New York.
73. Harry, J. L., K. L. Williams, and D. A. Briscoe. 1990. Sex determination in loggerhead turtles: differential expression of two hnRNP proteins. Development, 109: 305-312
74. Head, G., R. M. May, and L. Pendleton. 1987. Environmental determination of sex in the reptiles. Nature, 329: 198-199.
75. Hendrickson, J. R. 1958. The green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linn.) in Malaya and Sarawak. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 130: 455-535.
76. Hou, L. 1985. Sex determination by temperature for incubation in Chinemys reevesii. Acta Herpetol. Sinica, 4: 130.
77. Hutton, J. M. 1987. Incubation temperatures, sex ratios and sex determination in a population of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus). J. Zool., 211: 143-155.
78. Imataka, H., K. Suzuki, H. Inano, K. Kohmoto, and B.-I. Tamaoki. 1988. Sexual differences of steroidogenic enzymes in embryonic gonads of the chicken (Callus domesticus). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 69: 153-162.
79. Janzen, F. J., G. C. Packard, M. J. Packard, T. J. Boardman, and J. R. zumBrunnen. 1990. Mobilization of lipid and protein by embryonic snapping turtles in wet and dry environments. J. Exp. Zool., 255: 155-162.
80. Janzen, F. J., and G. L. Paukstis. 1988. Environmental sex determination in reptiles. Nature, 332: 790.
81. _, and _. 1991. A preliminary test of the adaptive significance of environmental sex determination in reptiles. Evolution, 45: 435-441.
82. Joanen, T., and L. L. McNease. 1989. Ecology and physiology of nesting and early development of the American alligator. Am. Zool., 29: 987-998.
83. Joanen, T., L. McNease, and M. W. J. Ferguson. 1987. The effects of egg incubation temperature on post-hatching growth of American alligators. In G. J. W. Webb, S. C. Manolis, and P. J. Whitehead (eds.), Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators, pp. 533-537. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
84. Jones, K. W. 1984. The evolution of sex chromosomes and chromosomal inactivation in reptiles and mammals. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond., 52: 305-316.
85. Joss, J. M. P. 1989. Gonadal development and differentiation in Alligator mississippiensis at male and female producing incubation temperatures. J. Zool., 218: 679-687.
86. Joss, J. M. P, and A. Cuff. 1987. Steroidogenesis during gonadal differentiation in the salt water crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. Am. Zool., 27: 66A (Abstr.).
87. Koopman, P., J. Gubbay, J. Collignon, and R. Lovell-Badge. 1989. Zfy gene expression patterns are not compatible with a primary role in mouse sex determination. Nature, 342: 940-942.
88. Lang, J. W. 1985. Incubation temperature affects thermal selection of hatchling crocodiles. Am. Zool., 25: 18A (Abstr.).
89. _. 1987. Crocodilian thermal selection. In G. J. W. Webb, S. C. Manolis, and P. J. Whitehead (eds.), Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators, pp. 301-317. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
90. Lang, J. W., H. Andrews, and R. Whitaker. 1989. Sex determination and sex ratios in Crocodylus palustris. Am. Zool., 29: 935-952.
91. Langerwerf, B. 1983. Über die Haltung und Zucht von Agama caucasia (Eichwald, 1831) (Sauria: Agamidae), nebst Bemerkungen zur erfolgreichen Zucht weiterer palaearktischer Echsen. Salamandra, 19: 11-20.
92. _. 1984. Techniques for large-scale breeding of lizards from temperate climates in greenhouse enclosures (breeding many species of lizards in captivity, aiming the maintenance of populations of each species outside their natural habitat). Acta Zool. Pathol. Antverp., 78: 163-176.
93. Leh, C. M. U., S. K. Poon, and Y. C. Siew. 1985. Temperature-related phenomena affecting the sex of green turtle (Chelonia mydas) hatchlings in the Sarawak Turtle Islands. Sarawak Mus. J., 34: 183-193.
94. Lescure, J., C. Lechat, F. Rimblot, and J. Fretey. 1985. Un modéle de couveuse thermostatée pour l'incubation en écloserie des oeufs de tortues marines. Bull. Soc. Herpétol. Fr., 36: 36-42.
95. Lescure, J., F. Rimblot, J. Fretey, S. Renous, and C. Pieau. 1985. Influence de la température d'incubation des oeufs sur la sex-ratio des nouveaux-nés de la tortue luth, Dermochelys coriacea. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., 110: 355-359.
96. Leshem, A., and R. Dmi'el. 1986. Water loss from Trionyx triunguis eggs incubating in natural nests. Herpetol. J., 1: 115-117.
97. Limpus, C. J., P. Reed, and J. D. Miller. 1983. Islands and turtles. The influence of choice of nesting beach on sex ratio. In J. T. Baker, R. M. Carter, P. W. Sammarco, and K. P. Stark (eds.), Proceedings: Inaugural Great Barrier Reef Conference, pp. 397-402. James Cook University Press, Townsville.
98. _, _, and _. 1985. Temperature dependent sex determination in Queensland sea turtles: intraspecific variation in Caretta caretta. In G. Grigg, R. Shine, and H. Ehmann (eds.), Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles, pp. 343-351. Royal Zoological Society, New South Wales.
99. Lovich, J. E., and J. W. Gibbons. 1990. Age at maturity influences adult sex ratio in the turtle Malaclemys terrapin. Oikos, 59: 126-134.
100. Maxwell, J. A., M. A. Motara, and G. H. Frank. 1988. A micro-environmental study of the effect of temperature on the sex ratios of the loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, from Tongaland, Natal. S. Afr. J. Zool., 23: 342-350.
101. McBee, K., J. W. Bickham, A. G. J. Rhodin, and R. A. Mittermeier. 1985. Karyotypic variation in the genus Platemys (Testudines: Pleurodira). Copeia, 1985: 445-449.
102. McKeown, S. 1984. Management and propagation of the lizard genus Phelsuma. Acta Zool. Pathol. Antverp., 78: 149-162.
103. Merchant-Larios, H., I. V. Fierro, and B. C. Urriuza. 1989. Gonadal morphogenesis under controlled temperature in the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea. Herpetol. Monogr., 3: 43-61.
104. Merchant-Larios, H., and I. Villalpando. 1990. Effect of temperature on gonadal sex differentiation in the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea: an organ culture study. J. Exp. Zool., 254: 327-331.
105. Miller, M. 1979. Preliminary notes on the breeding of geckos in captivity. Bull. Chicago Herpetol. Soc., 14: 78-91.
106. Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., and M. T. Dimond. 1986. Temperature dependent sex determination in the olive ridley turtle. In H. C. Slavkin (ed.), Progress in Developmental Biology, Part A, pp. 159-162. Alan R. Liss, New York.
107. Morreale, S. J., G. J. Ruiz, J. R. Spotila, and E. A. Standora. 1982. Temperature-dependent sex determination: current practices threaten conservation of sea turtles. Science, 216: 1245-1247.
108. Mrosovsky, N. 1980. Thermal biology of sea turtles. Am. Zool., 20: 531-547.
109. _. 1982. Sex ratio bias in hatchling sea turtles from artificially incubated eggs. Biol. Conserv., 23: 309-314.
110. _. 1984. Marine Turtle Newsl., 28: 1-2. [editorial].
111. _. 1988. Pivotal temperatures for loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) from northern and southern nesting beaches. Can. J. Zool., 66: 661-669.
112. Mrosovsky, N., and M. Benabib. 1990. An assessment of two methods of sexing hatchling sea turtles. Copeia, 1990: 589-591.
113. Mrosovsky, N., P. H. Dutton, and C. P. Whitmore. 1984. Sex ratios of two species of sea turtle nesting in Suriname. Can. J. Zool., 62: 2227-2239.
114. Mrosovsky, N., S. R. Hopkins-Murphy, and J. I. Richardson. 1984. Sex ratio of sea turtles: seasonal changes. Science, 225: 739-741.
115. Mrosovsky, N., and J. Provancha. 1989. Sex ratio of loggerhead sea turtles hatching on a Florida beach. Can. J. Zool., 67: 2533-2539.
116. Mrosovsky, N., and C. L. Yntema. 1980. Temperature dependence of sexual differentiation in sea turtles: implications for conservation practices. Biol. Conserv., 18: 271-280.
117. Nakamura, D. 1989. Evolutionary aspects of vertebrate sex determination. In S. S. Wachtel (ed.), Evolutionary Mechanisms in Sex Determination, pp. 3-14. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
118. Nakamura, D., S. S. Wachtel, V. Lance, and W. Beçak. 1987. On the evolution of sex determination. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 232: 159-180.
119. Nettmann, H.-K., and S. Rykena. 1985. Verhaltens- und fortpflanzungsbiologische Notizen über kanarische und nordafrikanische Tarentola-Arten. Bonn. Zool. Beitr., 36: 287-305.
120. Nichols, J. D., and R. H. Chabreck. 1980. On the variability of alligator sex ratios. Am. Nat., 116: 125-137.
121. Ohno, S. 1967. Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes. Springer, Berlin.
122. Olmo, E. 1986. A. Reptilia. In B. John (ed.), Animal Cytogenetics, Vol. 4: Chordata 3, pp. 1-100. Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin.
123. Olmo, E., G. Odierna, and O. Cobror. 1986. C-band variability and phylogeny of Lacertidae. Genetica, 71: 63-74.
124. Osgood, D. W. 1978. Effects of temperature on the development of meristic characters in Natrix fasciata. Copeia, 1978: 33-47.
125. Packard, G. C., and T. J. Boardman. 1988. The misuse of ratios, indices, and percentages in ecophysiological research. Physiol. Zool., 61: 1-9.
126. Packard, G. C., and M. J. Packard. 1988. The physiological ecology of reptilian eggs and embryos. In C. Gans and R. B. Huey (eds.), Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 16, pp. 523-605. Alan R. Liss, New York.
127. Packard, G. C., M. J. Packard, and L. Benigan. 1991. Sexual differentiation, growth, and hatching success by embryonic painted turtles incubated in wet and dry environments at fluctuating temperatures. Herpetologica, 47: 125-132.
128. Packard, G. C., M. J. Packard, and G. F. Birchard. 1989. Sexual differentiation and hatching success by painted turtles incubating in different thermal and hydric environments. Herpetologica, 45: 385-392.
129. Packard, G. C., M. J. Packard, and W. H. N. Gutzke. 1985. Influence of hydration of the environment on eggs and embryos of the terrestrial turtle Terrapene ornata. Physiol. Zool., 58: 564-575.
130. Packard, G. C., G. L. Paukstis, T. J. Boardman, and W. H. N. Gutzke. 1985. Daily and seasonal variation in hydric conditions and temperature inside nests of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). Can. J. Zool., 63: 2422-2429.
131. Page, D. C., R. Mosher, E. M. Simpson, G. Mardon, J. Pollack, B. McGillivray, A. de la Chapelle, and L. G. Brown. 1987. The sex determining region of the human Y chromosome encodes a finger protein. Cell, 51: 1091-1104.
132. Palmer, M. S., A. H. Sinclair, P. Berta, N. A. Ellis, P. N. Goodfellow, N. E. Abbas, and M. Fellows. 1989. Genetic evidence that ZFY is not the testis-determining factor. Nature, 342: 937-939.
133. Paukstis, G. L., W. H. N. Gutzke, and G. C. Packard. 1984. Effects of substrate water potential and fluctuating temperatures on sex ratios of hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta). Can. J. Zool., 62: 1491-1494.
134. Paukstis, G. L., and F. J. Janzen. 1990. Sex determination in reptiles: summary of effects of constant temperatures of incubation on sex ratios of offspring. Smithson. Herpetol. Info. Serv., 83: 1-28.
135. Pelham, H. 1985. Activation of heat-shock proteins in eukaryotes. Trends Genet., 1: 31-34.
136. Pieau,C. 1971. Sur la proportion sexuelle chez les embryons de deux Chéloniens (Testudo graeca L. et Emys orbicularis L.) issus d'oeufs incubés artificiellement. C. R. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris (Ser. D), 274: 3071-3074.
137. _. 1972. Effets de la température sur le développement des glandes génitales chez les embryons de deux Chéloniens, Emys orbicularis L. et Testudo graeca L. C. R. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris (Ser. D), 274: 719-722.
138. _. 1973a. Variation de l'activité enzyrnatique Δ 5-3 β-hydroxystéroide déshydrogénasique dans les glandes génitales d'embryons d'Emys orbicularis L. (Chélonien), en fonction de la température d'incubation. C. R. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris (Ser. D), 276: 197-200.
139. _. 1973b. Nouvelles données expérimentales concernant les effets de la température sur la différenciation sexuelle chez les embryons de Chéloniens. C. R. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris (Ser. D), 277: 2789-2792.
140. _. 1974. Sur la différenciation sexuelle chez des embryons d'Emys orbicularis L. (Chélonien) issus d'oeufs incubés dans le sol au cours de l'été 1973. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., 99: 363-376.
141. _. 1975a. Temperature and sex differentiation in embryos of two chelonians, Emys orbicularis L. and Testudo graeca L. In R. Reinboth (ed.), Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom, pp. 332-339. Springer-Verlag, New York.
142. _. 1975b. Effets des variations thermiques sur la différenciation du sexe chez les vertébrés. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., 100: 67-76.
143. _. 1975e. Différenciation du sexe chez les embryons d'Emys orbicularis L. (Chélonien) issus d'oeufs incubés dans le sol. Bull. Soc. Herpétol. Fr., 100: 648-649.
144. _. 1975d. Action de la température sur le phenotype sexuel des embryons d'un chelonien, Emys orbicularis L. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. Suppl., 1: 12-22.
145. _. 1976. Données récentes sur la différenciation sexuelle en fonction de la température chez les embryons d'Emys orbicularis L. (Chélonien). Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. Suppl., 4: 46-53.
146. _. 1982. Modalities of the action of température on sexual differentiation in field-developing embryos of the European pond turtle Emys orbicularis (Emydidae). J. Exp. Zool., 220: 353-360.
147. _. 1987. Recent data on sex determination and sexual differentiation in amphibians and reptiles. In J. J. van Gelder, H. Strijbosch, and P. J. M. Bergers (eds.), Proc. 4th Ordinary Gen. Meet. Soc. Eur. Herpetol., 17-21 August, pp. 307-310. University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen.
148. Pieau, C., and M. Dorizzi. 1981. Determination of temperature sensitive stages for sexual differentiation of the gonads in embryos of the turtle, Emys orbicularis. J. Morphol., 170: 373-382.
149. Pieau, C., M. Dorizzi, and G. Desvages. 1989. Mechanisms involved in sexual differentiation of gonads as a function of temperature in amphibians and reptiles. In T. Halliday, J. Baker, and L. Hosie (eds.), First World Congress of Herpetology, 11-19 September 1989 (Abstr.). University of Kent, Canterbury.
150. Pieau, C., T. Mignot, M. Dorizzi, and A. Guichard. 1982. Gonadal steroid levels in the turtle Emys orbicularis L.: a preliminary study in embryos, hatchlings, and young as a function of the incubation temperature of eggs. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 47: 392-398.
151. Ratterman, R. J., and R. A. Ackerman. 1989. The water exchange and hydric microclimate of painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) eggs incubating in field nests. Physiol. Zool., 62: 1059-1079.
152. Raynaud, A., and C. Pieau. 1972. Effets de diverses températures d'incubation sur le dévelopement somatique et sexuel des embryons de lézard vert (Lacerta viridis Laur.). C. R. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris (Ser. D), 275: 2259-2262.
153. Reyes, H. M. A., O. P. H. Arenas, C. E. Aguilar, and D. E. R. Cortez. 1988. Periodo sensible a la temperatura para la determinacion del sexo en la tortuga golfina (Lepidochelys olivacea Eschscholtz, 1829). Centra Interdisciplinario de Investigation para el Desarrollo Integral Regional, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Unidad Oaxaca, 8: 1-21.
154. Ridley, M. 1983. The Explanation of Organic Diversity: The Comparative Method and Adaptations for Mating. Oxford Univ. Press, Cambridge.
155. Rimblot, F., J. Fretey, N. Mrosovsky, J. Lescure, and C. Pieau. 1985. Sexual differentiation as a function of the incubation temperature of eggs in the sea-turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761). Amphib.-Reptilia, 6: 83-92.
156. Rimblot-Baly, F., J. Lescure, J. Fretey, and C. Pieau. 1987. Sensibilité a la température de la différenciation sexuelle chez la Tortue Luth, Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761); application des données de l'incubation artificielle a l'étude de la sex-ratio dans la nature. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. Paris, 8: 277-290.
157. Risley, P. L. 1933. Contributions on the development of the reproductive system in the musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus (Latreille). II. Gonadogenesis and sex differentiation. Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat., 18: 493-543.
158. Sachsse, W. 1984. Long term studies of the reproduction of Malaclemys terrapin centrata. Acta Zool. Pathol. Antverp., 78: 297-308.
159. Schwarzkopf, L., and R. J. Brooks. 1985. Sex determination in northern painted turtles: effect of incubation at constant and fluctuating temperatures. Can. J. Zool., 63: 2543-2547.
160. _, and _. 1987. Nest-site selection and offspring sex ratio in painted turtles, Chrysemys picta. Copeia, 1987: 53-61.
161. Servan, J., P. Zaborski, M. Dorizzi, and C. Pieau. 1989. Female-biased sex ratio in adults of the turtle Emys orbicularis at the northern limit of its distribution in France: a probable consequence of interaction of temperature with genotypic sex determination. Can. J. Zool., 67: 1279-1284.
162. Shanbhag, V. P., and R. Södergård. 1986. The temperature dependence of the binding of 5α-dihydrotestosterone, testosterone and estradiol to the sex hormone globulin (SHBG) of human plasma. J. Steroid Biochem., 24: 549-555.
163. Sharma, G. P., P. Kaur, and U. Nakhasi. 1975. Female heterogamety in the Indian cryptodiran chelonian, Kachuga smithi Gray. In K. K. Tiwari and C. B. Srivistava (eds.), Dr. B. S. Chauhan Commemoration Volume, pp. 359-368. Zoological Society of India, Orissa.
164. Shaver, D. J., D. W. Owens, A. H. Chancy, C. W. Caillouet, Jr., P. Burchfield, and R. Marquez. 1988. Styrofoam box and beach temperatures in relation to incubation and sex ratios of Kemp's ridley sea turtles. In B. A. Schroeder (compiler), Proceedings of the 8th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Biology, pp. 103-108. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-214.
165. Siegel, S. 1956. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York.
166. Simpson, E., P. Chandler, E. Goulmy, C. M. Disteche, M. A. Ferguson-Smith, and D. C. Page. 1987. Separation of the genetic loci for the H-Y antigen and for testis determination on human Y chromosome. Nature, 326: 876-878.
167. Slavens, F. L. 1987. Inventory of Reptiles & Amphibians in Captivity, 1987. Frank and Eldon Slavens, Seattle.
168. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1980. Statistical Methods. 7th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames.
169. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1981. Biometry. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
170. Spotila, J. R., E. A. Standora, S. J. Morreale, and G. J. Ruiz. 1987. Temperature dependent sex determination in the green turtle (Chelonia mydas): effects on the sex ratio on a natural nesting beach. Herpetologica, 43: 74-81.
171. Spotila, J. R., E. A. Standora, S. J. Morreale, G. J. Ruiz, and C. Puccia. 1983. Methodology for the study of temperature related phenomena affecting sea turtle eggs. U. S. F. W. S. Endangered Species Report No. 11.
172. Standora, E. A., and J. R. Spotila. 1985. Temperature dependent sex determination in sea turtles. Copeia, 1985: 711-722.
173. Swingland, I. R., and D. Stubbs. 1985. The ecology of a Mediterranean tortoise (Testudo hermanni): reproduction, J. Zool., 205: 595-610.
174. ter Borg, J. P. 1981. De invloed van de broedtemperatuur op de sekseverhouding in legsels van reptielen. Lacerta, 39: 171-177.
175. Thompson, M. B. 1983. The physiology and ecology of the eggs of pleurodiran tortoise Emydura macquarii (Gray), 1831. Ph.D. thesis, University of Adelaide, Adelaide.
176. _. 1988. Influence of incubation temperature and water potential on sex determination in Emydura macquari (Testudines: Pleurodira). Herpetologica, 44: 86-90.
177. Thorogood, J., and I. W. Whimster. 1979. The maintenance and breeding of the leopard gecko Eublepkaris macularius. Int. Zoo Yearb., 19: 74-78.
178. Tokunaga, S. 1985. Temperature-dependent sex determination in Gekko japonicus (Gekkonidae, Reptilia). Dev. Growth & Differ., 27: 117-120.
179. Tracy, C. R., and J. Sugar. 1989. Potential misuse of ANCOVA: comment on Packard and Boardman. Physiol. Zool., 62: 993-997.
180. Udvardy, M. D. F. 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. Int. Union Conserv. Nat. Nat. Resour., Occ. Paper, 18: 1-49.
181. van der Heiden, A. M., R. Briseño-Dueñas, and D. Rios-Olmeda. 1985. A simplified method for determining sex in hatchling sea turtles. Copeia, 1985: 779-782.
182. Vogt, R. C. 1980. Natural history of the map turtles Graptemys pseudogeographica and G. ouachitensis in Wisconsin. Tulane Stud. Zool. Bot., 22: 17-48.
183. _. 1989. Effects of incubation temperature on sex determination in a neotropical freshwater turtle community in southern Mexico. In T. Halliday, J. Baker, and L. Hosie (eds.), First World Congress of Herpetology, 11-19 September 1989 (Abstr.). University of Kent, Canterbury.
184. Vogt, R. C., and J. J. Bull. 1982a. Temperature controlled sex-determination in turtles: ecological and behavioral aspects. Herpetologica, 38: 156-164.
185. _, and _. 1982b. Genetic sex determination in the spiny softshell Trionyx spiniferus (Testudines: Trionychidae)(?). Copeia, 1982: 699-700.
186. _, and _. 1984. Ecology of hatchling sex ratio in map turtles. Ecology, 65: 582-587.
187. Vogt, R. C., J. J. Bull, C. J. McCoy, and T. W. Houseal. 1982. Incubation temperature influences sex determination in kinosternid turtles. Copeia, 1982: 480-482.
188. Wagner, E. 1980. Gecko husbandry and reproduction. In J. B. Murphy and J. T. Collins (eds.), Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles, pp. 115-117. SSAR Contributions to Herpetology, No. 1.
189. Webb, G. J. W., A. M. Beal, S. C. Manolis, and K. E. Dempsey. 1987. The effects of incubation temperature on sex determination and embryonic development rate of Crocodylus johnstoni and C. porosus. In G. J. W. Webb, S. C. Manolis, and P. J. Whitehead (eds.), Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators, pp. 507-531. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
190. Webb, G. J. W., R. Buckworth, and S. C. Manolis. 1983. Crocodylus johnstoni in the McKinlay River, N. T. VI. Nesting biology. Aust. Wildl. Res., 10: 607-637.
191. Webb, G. J. W., D. Choquenot, and P. J. Whitehead. 1986. Nests, eggs, and embryonic development of Carettochelys insculpta (Chelonia: Carettochelidae) from Northern Australia. J Zool. B, 1: 521-550.
192. Webb, G. J. W., and H. Cooper-Preston. 1989. Effects of incubation temperature on crocodiles and the evolution of reptilian oviparity. Am. Zool., 29: 953-971.
193. Webb, G. J. W., and A. M. A. Smith. 1984. Sex ratio and survivorship in the Australian freshwater crocodile Crocodylus johnstoni. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond., 52: 319-355.
194. Whitaker, R. 1981. Sex ratios in clutches of captive bred mugger (Crocodylus palustris). Hamadryad, 6: 7-8.
195. Whitmore, C., P. Dutton, and N. Mrosovsky. 1985. Sexing of hatchling sea turtles: gross appearance versus histology. J. Herpetol., 19: 430-431.
196. Wilbur, H. M., and P. J. Morin. 1988. Life history evolution in turtles. In C. Gans and R. B. Huey (eds.), Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 16, pp. 387-440. Alan R. Liss, New York.
197. Wilhoft, D. C., E. Hotaling, and P. Franks. 1983. Effects of temperature on sex determination in embryos of the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina. J. Herpetol., 17: 38-42.
198. Witschi, E. 1929. Studies on sex differentiation and sex determination in amphibians. I. Development and sexual differentiation of the gonads of Rana sylvatica. J. Exp. Zool., 52: 235-254.
199. _. 1959. Age of sex-determining mechanisms in vertebrates. Science, 130: 372-375.
200. Yamakoshi, M., W. E. Magnusson, and J. M. Hero. 1987. The nesting biology of Paleosuchus trigonatus: sources of heat for nests, survivorship and sex ratios. Am. Zool., 27: 67A (Abstr.).
201. Yntema, C. L. 1976. Effects of incubation temperatures on sexual differentiation in the turtle, Chelydra serpentina. J. Morphol., 150: 453-462.
202. _. 1979. Temperature levels and periods of sex determination during incubation of eggs of Chelydra serpentina. J. Morphol., 159: 17-27.
203. _. 1981. Characteristics of gonads and oviducts in hatchlings and young of Chelydra serpentina resulting from three incubation temperatures. J. Morphol., 167: 297-304.
204. Yntema, C. L., and N. Mrosovsky. 1979. Incubation temperature and sex ratio in hatchling loggerhead turtles: a preliminary report. Marine Turtle Newsl., 11: 9-10.
205. _, and _. 1980. Sexual differentiation in hatchling loggerheads (Caretta caretta) incubated at different controlled temperatures. Herpitologica, 36: 33-36.
206. _, and _. 1982. Critical periods and pivotal temperatures for sexual differentiation in loggerhead sea turtles. Can. J. Zool., 60: 1012-1016.
207. Zaborski, P., M. Dorizzi, and C. Pieau. 1979. Sur l'utilisation de sérum anti-H-Y de souris pour la détermination du sexe génétique chez Emys orbicularis L. (Testudines, Emydidae). C. R. Hebd. Séanc. Acad. Sci., Paris (Ser. D), 288: 351-354.
208. _, _, and _. 1982. H-Y antigen expression in temperature sex-reversed turtles (Emys orbicularis). Differentiation, 22: 73-78.
209. _, _, and _. 1988. Temperature-dependent gonadal differentiation in the turtle Emys orbicularis: Concordance between sexual phenotype and serological H-Y antigen expression at threshold temperature. Differentiation, 38: 17-20.