Acromegaly

New England Journal of Medicine

Volumn 322, Issue 14, 1990, Pages 966-977

  Melmed, Shlomo ^a  

^a CEDARS SINAI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BROMOCRIPTINE; OCTREOTIDE;

ACROMEGALY; CHOLELITHIASIS; DIARRHEA; HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

ACROMEGALY; HUMAN; SUPPORT, U.S. GOV'T, P.H.S.;

EID: 0025700486     PISSN: 00284793     EISSN: 15334406     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199004053221405     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Marie P. Sur deux cas d'acromégalie: hypertrophie singulière non congénitale des extréemitiés supérieures, inférieures et céphalique. Rev Med 1886; 6: 297–333.
2. Cushing H. Partial hypophysectomy for acromegaly: with remarks on the function of the hypophysis. Ann Surg 1909; 50: 1002–17.
3. Reichlin S. Med Grnd Rnds 1982; 1: 9–24.
4. Faglia G, Arosio M, Ambrosi B. Recent advances in diagnosis and treatment of acromegaly. In: Imura H, ed. The pituitary gland. New York: Raven Press, 1985:363–404.
5. Robbins RJ, Melmed S, eds. Acromegaly: a century of scientific and clinical progress. New York: Plenum Press, 1987.
6. Karpf DB, Braunstein GD. Current concepts in acromegaly: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Compr Ther 1986; 12: 22–30.
7. Jadresic A, Banks LM, Child DF, et al. The acromegaly syndrome: relation between clinical features, growth hormone values and radiological characteristics of the pituitary tumours. Q J Med 1982; 51: 189–204.
8. Lewis UJ, Singh RN, Tutwiler GF, Sigel MB, VanderLaan EF, VanderLaan WP. Human growth hormone: a complex of proteins. Recent Prog Horm Res 1980; 36: 477–508.
9. Miller WL, Eberhardt NL. Structure and evolution of the growth hormone gene family. Endocr Rev 1983; 4: 97–130.
10. Cooke NE, Ray J, Watson MA, Estes PA, Kuo BA, Liebhaber SA. Human growth hormone gene and its highly homologous growth hormone variant gene display different splicing patterns. J Clin Invest 1988; 82: 270–5.
11. Thorner MO, Vance ML. Growth hormone, 1988. J Clin Invest 1988; 82: 745–7.
12. Barinaga M, Bilezikjian LM, Vale WW, Rosenfeld MG, Evans RM. Independent effects of growth hormone releasing factor on growth hormone release and gene transcription. Nature 1985; 314: 279–81.
13. Frohman LA, Jansson JO. Growth hormone-releasing hormone. Endocr Rev 1986; 7: 223–53.
14. Reichlin S. Somatostatin. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 1495–501.
15. Vance ML, Kaiser DL, Evans WS, et al. Pulsatile growth hormone secretion in normal man during a continuous 24-hour infusion of human growth hormone releasing factor (1–40): evidence for intermittent somatostatin secretion. J Clin Invest 1985; 75: 1584–90.
16. Martin JB. Hypothalamic regulation of growth hormone secretion. In: Black PM, Zervas NT, Ridgway EC, Martin JB, eds. Secretory tumors of the pituitary gland. New York: Raven Press, 1984:109–33.
17. Tannenbaum GS, Ling N. The interrelationship of growth hormone (GH)-releasing factor and somatostatin in generation of the ultradian rhythm of GH secretion. Endocrinology 1984; 115: 1952–7.
18. Ho KY, Veldhuis JD, Johnson ML, et al. Fasting enhances growth hormone secretion and amplifies the complex rhythms of growth hormone secretion in man. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: 968–75.
19. Ho KY, Evans WS, Blizzard RM, et al. Effects of sex and age on the 24-hour profile of growth hormone secretion in man: importance of endogenous estradiol concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 51–8.
20. Barkan AL, Shenker Y, Grekin RJ, Vale WW, Lloyd RV, Beals TF. Acromegaly due to ectopic growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone (GHRH) production: dynamic studies of GH and ectopic GHRH secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63: 1057–64.
21. Daughaday WH. A personal history of the origin of the somatomedin hypothesis and recent challenges to its validity. Perspect Biol Med 1989; 32: 194–211.
22. Murphy LJ, Bell GI, Friesen HG. Growth hormone stimulates sequential induction of c-myc and insulin-like growth factor I expression in vivo. Endocrinology 1987; 120: 1806–12.
23. Van Wyk JJ. The somatomedins: biological actions and physiologic control mechanisms. In: Li CH, ed. Growth factors. Vol. 12 of Hormonal proteins and peptides. New York: Academic Press, 1984:81–125.
24. D'Ercole AJ, Stiles AD, Underwood LE. Tissue concentrations of somatomedin C: further evidence of multiple sites of synthesis and paracrine or automne mechanisms of action. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1984; 81: 935–9.
25. Fagin JA, Brown A, Melmed S. Regulation of pituitary insulin-like growth factor-I messenger ribonucleic acid levels in rats harboring somatomammotrophic tumors: implications for growth hormone autoregulation. Endocrinology 1988; 122: 2204–10.
26. Berelowitz M, Szabo M, Frohman LA, Firestone S, Chu L, Hintz RL. Somatomedin-C mediates growth hormone negative feedback by effects on both the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Science 1981; 212: 1279–81.
27. Yamashita S, Weiss M, Melmed S. Insulin-like growth factor I regulates growth hormone secretion and messenger ribonucleic acid levels in human pituitary tumor cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63: 730–5.
28. Yamashita S, Melmed S. Insulinlike growth factor I regulation of growth hormone gene transcription in primary rat pituitary cells. J Clin Invest 1987; 79: 449–52.
29. Schlechter NL, Russell SM, Spencer EM, Nicoll CS. Evidence suggesting that the direct growth-promoting effect of growth hormone on cartilage in vivo is mediated by local production of somatomedin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 7932–4.
30. Melmed S, Braunstein GD, Horvath E, Ezrin C, Kovacs K. Pathophysiology of acromegaly. Endocr Rev 1983; 4: 271–90.
31. Isaacs RE, Findel PR, Mellon P, Wilson CB, Baxter JD. Hormonal regulation of expression of the endogenous and transfected human growth hormone gene. Mol Endocrinol 1987; 1: 569–76.
32. Pixley S, Weiss M, Melmed S. Identification of human growth hormone messenger ribonucleic acid in pituitary adenoma cells by in situ hybridization. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 575–80.
33. Dana S, Karin M. Induction of human growth hormone promoter activity by the adenosine 3′,5′–monophosphate pathway involves a novel responsive element. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3: 815–21.
34. Brent GA, Hamey JW, Moore DD, Larsen PR. Multihormonal regulation of the human, rat, and bovine growth hormone promoters: differential effects of 3′,5′–cyclic adenosine monophosphate, thyroid hormone, and glucocorticoids. Mol Endocrinol 1988; 2: 792–8.
35. Bodner M, Karin M. A pituitary-specific trans-acting factor can stimulate transcription from the growth hormone promoter in extracts of nonexpressing cells. Cell 1987; 50: 267–75.
36. Moore DD, Marks AR, Buckley DI, Kapler G, Payvar F, Goodman HM. The first intron of the human growth hormone gene contains a binding site for glucocorticoid receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1985; 82: 699–702.
37. Yamashita S, Ong J, Melmed S. Regulation of human growth hormone gene expression by insulin-like growth factor I in transfected cells. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 13254–7.
38. Imagawa M, Chiu R, Karin M. Transcription factor AP-2 mediates induction by two different signal-transduction pathways: protein kinase C and cAMP. Cell 1987; 51: 251–60.
39. Peake GT, Mariz IK, Daughaday WH. Radioimmunoassay of growth hormone in rats bearing somatotropin producing tumors. Endocrinology 1968; 83: 714–20.
40. Shea BT, Hammer RE, Brinster RL. Growth allometry of the organs in giant transgenic mice. Endocrinology 1987; 121: 1924–30.
41. Mathews LS, Hammer RE, Behringer RR, et al. Growth enhancement of transgenic mice expressing human insulin-like growth factor I. Endocrinology 1988; 123: 2827–33.
42. Lindahl A, Isgaard J, Carlsson L, Isaksson OG. Differential effects of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor I on colony formation of epiphyseal chondrocytes in suspension culture in rats of different ages. Endocrinology 1987; 121: 1061–9.
43. Guler HP, Zapf J, Scheiwiller E, Froesch ER. Recombinant human insulin-like growth factor I stimulates growth and has distinct effects on organ size in hypophysectomized rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988; 85: 4889–93.
44. Lloyd RV, Cano M, Chandler WF, Barkan AL, Horvath E, Kovacs K. Human growth hormone and prolactin secreting pituitary adenomas analyzed by in situ hybridization. Am J Pathol 1989; 134: 605–13.
45. Halmi NS. Occurrence of both growth hormone- and prolactin-immunoreactive material in the cells of human somatotropic pituitary adenomas containing mammotropic elements. Virchows Arch [A] 1982; 398: 19–31.
46. Horvath E, Kovacs K, Singer W, Ezrin C, Kerenyi NA. Acidophil stem cell adenoma of the human pituitary. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1977; 101: 594–9.
47. Mountcastle RB, Roof BS, Mayfield RK, et al. Pituitary adenocarcinoma in an acromegalic patient: response to bromocriptine and pituitary testing: a review of the literature on 36 cases of pituitary carcinoma. Am J Med Sci 1989; 298: 109–18.
48. Thorner MO, Perryman RL, Cronin MJ, et al. Somatotroph hyperplasia: successful treatment of acromegaly by removal of a pancreatic islet tumor secreting a growth hormone-releasing factor. J Clin Invest 1982; 70: 965–77.
49. Ashcraft MW, Hartzband PI, Van Herle AJ, Bersch N, Golde DW. A unique growth factor in patients with acromegaloidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983; 57: 272–6.
50. Low L, Chernausek SD, Sperling MA. Acromegaloid patients with type A insulin resistance: parallel defects in insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I receptors and biological responses in cultured fibroblasts. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 329–37.
51. Sparagana M, Phillips G, Hoffman C, Kucera L. Ectopic growth hormone syndrome associated with lung cancer. Metabolism 1971; 20: 730–6.
52. Kaganowicz A, Farkouh NH, Frantz AG, Blaustein AU. Ectopic human growth hormone in ovaries and breast cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979; 48: 5–8.
53. Melmed S, Ezrin C, Kovacs K, Goodman RS, Frohman LA. Acromegaly due to secretion of growth hormone by an ectopic pancreatic islet-cell tumor. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 9–17.
54. Shibasaki T, Kiyosawa Y, Masuda A, et al. Distribution of growth hormone-releasing hormone-like immunoreactivity in human tissue extracts. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 59: 263–8.
55. Sano T, Asa SL, Kovacs K. Growth hormone-releasing hormone-producing tumors: clinical, biochemical, and morphological manifestations. Endocr Rev 1988; 9: 357–73.
56. Asa SL, Scheithauer BW, Bilbao JM, et al. A case for hypothalamic acromegaly: a clinicopathological study of six patients with hypothalamic gangliocytomas producing growth hormone-releasing factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 58: 796–803.
57. Caplan RH, Koob L, Abellera RM, Pagliara AS, Kovacs K, Randall RV. Cure of acromegaly by operative removal of an islet cell tumor of the pancreas. Am J Med 1978; 64: 874–82.
58. Frohman LA, Szabo M, Berelowitz M, Stachura ME. Partial purification and characterization of a peptide with growth hormone-releasing activity from extrapituitary tumors in patients with acromegaly. J Clin Invest 1980; 65: 43–54.
59. Dabek FT. Bronchial carcinoid tumor with acromegaly in two patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1974; 38: 329–33.
60. Leveston SA, McKeel DW Jr, Buckley PJ, et al. Acromegaly and Cushing's syndrome associated with a foregut carcinoid tumor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 53: 682–9.
61. Saeed uz Zafar M, Mellinger RC, Fine G, Szabo M, Frohman LA. Acromegaly associated with a bronchial carcinoid tumor: evidence for ectopic production of growth hormone-releasing activity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979; 48: 66–71.
62. Shalet SM, Beardwell CG, MacFarlane LA, et al. Acromegaly due to production of a growth hormone releasing factor by a bronchial carcinoid tumor. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1979; 10: 61–7.
63. Sonksen PH, Ayres AB, Braimbridge M, et al. Acromegaly caused by pulmonary carcinoid tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1976; 5: 503–13.
64. Guillemin RR, Brazeau P, Böhlen P, Esch F, Ling N, Wehrenberg WB. Growth hormone-releasing factor from a human pancreatic tumor that caused acromegaly. Science 1982; 218: 585–7.
65. Sano T, Yamasaki R, Saito H, et al. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)-secreting pancreatic tumor in a patient with multiple endocrine neoplasia type I. Am J Surg Pathol 1987; 11: 810–9.
66. Berger G, Trouillas J, Bloch B, et al. Multihormonal carcinoid tumor of the pancreas: secreting growth hormone-releasing factor as a cause of acromegaly. Cancer 1984; 54: 2097–108.
67. Garcia-Luna PP, Leal-Cerro A, Montero C, et al. A rare cause of acromegaly: ectopic production of growth hormone-releasing factor by a bronchial carcinoid tumor. Surg Neurol 1987; 27: 563–8.
68. Gomez-Pan A, Scanlon MF, Thorner MO, et al. Effect of somatostatin on abnormal growth hormone and prolactin secretion in patients with the carcinoid syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1979; 10: 575–81.
69. Scheithauer BW, Carpenter PC, Bloch B, Brazeau P. Ectopic secretion of a growth hormone-releasing factor: report of a case of acromegaly with bronchial carcinoid tumor. Am J Med 1984; 76: 605–16.
70. Ch'ng JLC, Christofides ND, Kraenzlin ME, et al. Growth hormone secretion dynamics in a patient with ectopic growth hormone-releasing factor production. Am J Med 1985; 79: 135–8.
71. Wilson DM, Ceda GP, Bostwick DG, et al. Acromegaly and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome secondary to an islet cell tumor: characterization and quantification of plasma and tumor human growth hormone-releasing factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 59: 1002–5.
72. Schulte HM, Benker G, Windeck R, Olbricht T, Reinwein D. Failure to respond to growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) in acromegaly due to a GHRH secreting pancreatic tumor: dynamics of multiple endocrine testing. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 585–7.
73. Spero M, White EA. Resolution of acromegaly, amenorrhea-galactorrhea syndrome, and hypergastrinemia after resection of jejunal carcinoid. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60: 392–5.
74. Roth KA, Wilson DM, Eberwine J, et al. Acromegaly and pheochromocytoma: a multiple endocrine syndrome caused by a plurihormonal adrenal medullary tumor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63: 1421–6.
75. Wilson DM, Hoffman AR. Reduction of pituitary size by the somatostatin analogue SMS 201–995 in a patient with an islet cell tumour secreting growth hormone releasing factor. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1986; 113: 23–8.
76. Boizel R, Halimi S, Labat F, Cohen R, Bachelot I. Acromegaly due to a growth hormone-releasing hormone-secreting bronchial carcinoid tumor: further information on the abnormal responsiveness of the somatotroph cells and their recovery after successful treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 304–8.
77. Melmed S, Ziel FH, Braunstein GD, Downs T, Frohman LA. Medical management of acromegaly due to ectopic production of growth hormonereleasing hormone by a carcinoid tumor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 395–9.
78. Ramsay JA, Kovacs K, Asa SL, Pike MJ, Thorner MO. Reversible sellar enlargement due to growth hormone-releasing hormone production by pancreatic endocrine tumors in an acromegalic patient with multiple endocrine neoplasia type I syndrome. Cancer 1988; 62: 445–50.
79. Thomer MO, Frohman LA, Leong DA, et al. Extrahypothalamic growth-hormone-releasing factor (GRF) secretion is a rare cause of acromegaly: plasma GRF levels in 177 acromegalic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 59: 846–9.
80. Oberg K, Norheim I, Wide L. Serum growth hormone in patients with carcinoid tumours: basal levels and response to glucose and thyrotrophin releasing hormone. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1985; 109: 13–8.
81. Frohman LA, Downs TR. Ectopic GRH syndromes. In: Robbins R, Melmed S, eds. Acromegaly: a century of scientific and clinical progress. New York: Plenum Press, 1987:115–25.
82. Molitch ME. Pathogenesis of pituitary tumors. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1987; 16: 503–27.
83. Frohman LA. Disorders of the anterior pituitary. In: Felig P, Baxter JD, Broadus AE, Frohman LA, eds. Endocrinology and metabolism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987:247–337.
84. Billestrup N, Swanson LW, Vale W. Growth hormone-releasing factor stimulates proliferation of somatotrophs in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986; 83: 6854–7.
85. Billestrup N, Mitchell RL, Vale W, Verma IM. Growth hormone-releasing factor induces c-fos expression in cultured primary pituitary cells. Mol Endocrinol 1987; 1: 300–5.
86. Mayo KE, Hammer RE, Swanson LW, Brinster RL, Rosenfeld MG, Evans RM. Dramatic pituitary hyperplasia in transgenic mice expressing a human growth hormone-releasing factor gene. Mol Endocrinol 1988; 2: 606–12.
87. Kovacs K, Horvath E. Pathology of growth hormone-producing tumors of the human pituitary. Semin Diagn Pathol 1986; 3: 18–33.
88. Sassolas G, Chayvialle JA, Partensky C, et al. Acromégalie, expression clinique de la production de facteurs de libération de l'hormone de croissance (G.R.F.) par une tumeur pancréatique. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 1983; 44: 347–54.
89. Lamberg BA, Pelkonen R, Aro A, Grahne B. Thyroid function in acromegaly before and after transsphenoidal hypophysectomy followed by cryoapplication. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1976; 82: 254–66.
90. Spada A, Elahi FR, Arosio M, et al. Lack of desensitization of adenomatous somatotrophs to growth-hormone releasing hormone in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 585–91.
91. Webb CB, Thominet JL, Frohman LA. Ectopic growth hormone releasing factor stimulates growth hormone release from human somatotroph adenomas in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983; 56: 417–9.
92. Kohler PO, Bridson WE, Rayford PL, Kohler SE. Hormone production by human pituitary adenomas in culture. Metabolism 1969; 18: 782–8.
93. Ishibashi M, Yamaji T. Direct effects of catecholamines, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, and somatostatin on growth hormone and prolactin secretion from adenomatous and nonadenomatous human pituitary cells in culture. J Clin Invest 1984; 73: 66–78.
94. Moyse E, Le Dafniet M, Epelbaum J, et al. Somatostatin receptors in human growth hormone and prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 98–103.
95. Schuster LD, Bantle JP, Oppenheimer JH, Seljeskog EL. Acromegaly: reassessment of the long-term therapeutic effectiveness of transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. Ann Intern Med 1981; 95: 172–4.
96. Hoyte KM, Martin JB. Recovery from paradoxical growth hormone responses in acromegaly after transsphenoidal selective adenomectomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975; 41: 656–9.
97. Stolar MW, Baumann G. Secretory patterns of growth hormone during basal periods in man. Metabolism 1986; 35: 883–8.
98. Barkan A, Stred S, Reno K, Markovs M, Hopwood N, Kelch R. Rapid GH pulse frequency in acromegaly: evidence for hypothalamic etiology of the disease. In: Program and abstracts of Endocrine Society 71st Annual Meeting, Seattle, June 1989. Bethesda. Md.: Endocrine Society, 1989. abstract. abstract.
99. Barkan AL, Kelch RP, Hopwood NJ, Beitins IZ. Treatment of acromegaly with the long-acting somatostatin analog SMS 201–995. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 66: 16–23.
100. Melmed S, Braunstein G, Chang J, Becker DP. Pituitary tumors secreting growth hormone and prolactin. Ann Intem Med 1986; 105: 238–53.
101. Hinkle PM, Kinsella PA. Thyroid hormone induction of an autocrine growth factor secreted by pituitary tumor cells. Science 1986; 234: 1549–52.
102. Miller MJ, Fels EC, Shapiro LE, Surks MI. L-Triiodothyronine stimulates growth by means of an autocrine factor in a cultured growth hormoneproducing cell line. J Clin Invest 1987; 79: 1773–81.
103. White JD, Carlson HE. Increased oncogene expression in rat anterior pituitary tumors. In: Program and abstracts of Endocrine Society 69th Annual Meeting, Indianapolis, June 1987. Bethesda, Md.: Endocrine Society, 1987. abstract.
104. Herman V, Fagin JA, Gonsky R, Riordan-Mita MA, Kovacs K, Melmed S. Heterogeneous clonal origin of functional anterior pituitary tumors. Clin Res 1990; 38: 97A. abstract.
105. Casey PJ, Gilman AG. G protein involvement in receptor-effector coupling. J Biol Chem 1988; 263: 2577–80.
106. s and adenylate cyclase activity in human GH-secreting pituitary adenomas. Nature 1987; 330: 566–8.
107. s and stimulate adenylyl cyclase in human pituitary tumours. Nature 1989; 340: 692–6.
108. Mulcahey JJ, Jaffe RB. Detection of a potential progenitor cell in the human fetal pituitary that secretes both growth hormone and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 66: 24–32.
109. Alexander L, Appleton D, Hall R, Ross WM, Wilkinson R. Epidemiology of acromegaly in the Newcastle region. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1980; 12: 71–9.
110. Nabarro JDN. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1987; 26: 481–512.
111. Klein I, Parveen G, Gavaler JS, VanThiel DH. Colonic polyps in patients with acromegaly. Ann Intern Med 1982; 97: 27–30.
112. Leavitt J, Klein I, Kendricks F, Gavaler J, VanThiel DH. Skin tags: a cutaneous marker for colonic polyps. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98: 928–30.
113. Ituarte EM, Petrini J, Hershman JM. Acromegaly and colon cancer. Ann Intern Med 1984; 101: 627–8.
114. Pines A, Rozen P, Ron E, Gilat T. Gastrointestinal tumors in acromegalic patients. Am J Gastroenterol 1985; 80: 266–9.
115. Barkan AL, Beitins IZ, Kelch RP. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I/somatomedin-C in acromegaly: correlation with degree of growth hormone hypersecretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 69–73.
116. Oppizzi G, Petroncini MM, Dallabonzana D, et al. Relationship between somatomedin-C and growth hormone levels in acromegaly: basal and dynamic evaluation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63: 1348–53.
117. Clemmons DR, Van Wyk JJ, Ridgway EC, Kliman B, Kjellberg RN, Underwood LE. Evaluation of acromegaly by radioimmunoassay of somatomedin-C. N Engl J Med 1979; 301: 1138–42.
118. Imura H, Kato Y, Hattori N. Acromegaly. In: Bereu B, ed. Basic and clinical aspects of growth hormone. New York: Plenum Press, 1988:95–103.
119. Daughaday WH, Starkey RH, Saltman S, Gavin JR III, Mills-Dunlap B, Heath-Monnig E. Characterization of serum growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I in active acromegaly with minimal elevation of serum GH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 617–23.
120. Haughton VM, Rimm AA, Czervionke LF, et al. Sensitivity of Gd-DTPA-enhanced MR imaging of benign extraaxial tumors. Radiology 1988; 166: 829–33.
121. Wright AD, Hill DM, Lowy C, Fraser TR. Mortality in acromegaly. Q J Med 1970; 39: 1–16.
122. Daughaday WH. A new treatment for an old disease. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1604–5.
123. Jordan RM, Kohler PO. Recent advances in diagnosis and treatment of pituitary tumors. Adv Intern Med 1987; 32: 299–323.
124. Baumann G. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1987; 16: 685–703.
125. Barkan AL. Acromegaly diagnosis and therapy. Endocrinol Metab Clin 1989; 18: 277–310.
126. Laws ER, Carpenter SM, Scheithauer BW, Randall RV. Long-term results of transsphenoidal surgery for the management of acromegaly. In: Robbins R, Melmed S, eds. Acromegaly: a century of scientific and clinical progress. New York: Plenum Press, 1987:241–8.
127. Serri O, Somma M, Comtois R, et al. Acromegaly: biochemical assessment of cure after long term follow-up of transsphenoidal selective adenomectomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 1185–9.
128. Ross DA, Wilson CB. Results of transsphenoidal microsurgery for growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma in a series of 214 patients. J Neurosurg 1988; 68: 854–67.
129. Eastman RC, Gordon P, Roth J. Conventional supervoltage irradiation is an effective treatment for acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979; 48: 931–40.
130. Kjellberg RN, Kliman B, Swisher BJ. Radiosurgery for pituitary adenoma with bragg peak proton beam. In: Derome PJ, Jedynak CP, Peillon F, eds. Pituitary adenomas, biology, physiopathology and treatment: Second European Workshop La Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris. Paris: Asclepios Publishing, 1980:209–17.
131. Vance ML, Evans WS, Thorner MO. Bromocriptine. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100: 78–91.
132. Wass JA, Thorner MO, Morris DV, et al. Long-term treatment of acromegaly with bromocriptine. Br Med J 1977; 1: 875–8.
133. Lamberts SW, Liuzzi A, Chiodini PG, Verde S, Klijn JG, Birkenhager JC. The value of plasma prolactin levels in the prediction of the responsiveness of growth hormone secretion to bromocriptine and TRH in acromegaly. Eur J Clin Invest 1982; 12: 151–5.
134. Moreau JP, DeFeudis FV. Pharmacological studies of somatostatin and somatostatin-analogues: therapeutic advances and perspectives. Life Sci 1987; 40: 419–37.
135. Plewe G, Beyer J, Krause U, Neufeld M, del Pozo E. Long-acting and selective suppression of growth hormone secretion by somatostatin analogue SMS 201–995 in acromegaly. Lancet 1984; 2: 782–4.
136. Lamberts SW. The role of somatostatin in the regulation of anterior pituitary hormone secretion and the use of its analogs in the treatment of human pituitary tumors. Endocr Rev 1988; 9: 417–36.
137. Gorden P, Comi RJ, Maton PN, Go VL. Somatostatin and somatostatin analogue (SMS 201–995) in treatment of hormone-secreting tumors of the pituitary and gastrointestinal tract and non-neoplastic diseases of the gut. Ann Intern Med 1989; 110: 35–50.
138. Kohler PO. Treatment of pituitary adenomas. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 45–6.
139. Reubi JC, Landolt AM. The growth hormone responses to octreotide in acromegaly correlate with adenoma somatostatin receptor status. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 68: 844–50.
140. Kelijman M, Williams TC, Downs TR, Frohman LA. Comparison of the sensitivity of growth hormone secretion to somatostatin in vivo and in vitro in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 958–63.
141. Hofland LJ, van Koetsveld PM, van Vroonhoven CC, Stefanko SZ, Lamberts SW. Heterogeneity of growth hormone (GH) release by individual pituitary adenoma cells from acromegalic patients, as determined by the reverse hemolytic plaque assay: effects of SMS 201–995, GH-releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 68: 613–20.
142. Lamberts SWJ, Uitterlinden P, Verschoor L, van Dongen KJ, del Pozo E. Long-term treatment of acromegaly with the somatostatin analogue SMS 201–995. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1576–80.
143. Lamberts SW, Uitterlinden P, Schuijff PC, Klijn JG. Therapy of acromegaly with sandostatin: the predictive value of an acute test, the value of serum somatomedin-C measurements in dose adjustment and the definition of a biochemical “cure”. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1988; 29: 411–20.
144. Comi RJ, Gorden P. The response of serum growth hormone levels to the long-acting somatostatin analog SMS 201–995 in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 37–42.
145. Barnard LB, Grantham WG, Lamberton P, O'Dorisio TM, Jackson IMD. Treatment of resistant acromegaly with a long-acting somatostatin analogue (SMS 201–995). Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 856–61.
146. Lamberts SW, Uitterlinden P, del Pozo E. SMS 201–995 induces a continuous decline in circulating growth hormone and somatomedin-C levels during therapy of acromegalic patients for over two years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 703–10.
147. Wang C, Lam KS, Arceo E, Chan FL. Comparison of the effectiveness of 2-hourly versus 8-hourly subcutaneous injections of a somatostatin analog (SMS 201–995) in the treatment of acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 670–7.
148. Tauber JP, Babin T, Tauber MT, et al. Long-term effects of continuous subcutaneous infusion of the somatostatin analog octreotide in the treatment of acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 68: 917–24.
149. Lamberts SW, Zweens M, Verschoor L, del Pozo E. A comparison among the growth hormone-lowering effects in acromegaly of the somatostatin analog SMS 201–995, bromocriptine, and the combination of both drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 63: 16–9.
150. Barkan AL, Lloyd RV, Chandler WF, et al. Preoperative treatment of acromegaly with long-acting somatostatin analog SMS 201–995: shrinkage of invasive pituitary macroadenomas and improved surgical remission rate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 1040–8.
151. Barakat S, Melmed S. Reversible shrinkage of a growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma by a long-acting somatostatin analogue, octreotide. Arch Intem Med 1989; 149: 1443–5.
152. Chanson P, Timsit J, Wamet A, et al. Evolution of cardiac function in acromegalic patients treated with SMS 201–995. Program 8th International Congress of Endocrinology, Kyoto, Japan, July 1988. Kyoto, Japan: International Society of Endocrinology, 1988. abstract.
153. Barkan AL, Shenker Y, Grekin RJ, Vale WW. Acromegaly from ectopic growth hormone-releasing hormone secretion by a malignant carcinoid tumor: successful treatment with long-acting somatostatin analogue SMS 201–995. Cancer 1988; 61: 221–6.
154. von Werder K, Losa M, Muller OA, Schweiberer L, Fahlbusch R, del Pozo E. Treatment of metastasising GRH-producing tumour with a long-acting somatostatin analogue. Lancet 1984; 2: 282–3.
155. Harris AG, Prestele H, Herold K, Boerlin V. Long-term efficacy of Sandostatin (SMS 201–995, Octreotide) in 178 acromegalic patients: results from the international multicenter acromegaly study group. In: Lamberts SWJ, ed. Sandostatin in the treatment of acromegaly. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1988:117–25.
156. van Liessum PA, Hopman WP, Pieters GF, et al. Postprandial gallbladder motility during long term treatment with the long-acting somatostatin analog SMS 201–995 in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 557–62.
157. Quabbe HJ, Plockinger U. Dose response study and long term effect of the somatostatin analog octreotide in patients with therapy-resistant acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 68: 873–81.