Learning and unlearning fear: A clinical and evolutionary perspective

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 1990, Pages 365-384

  Marks, Isaac ^a   Toben̂a, Adolf ^b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITAT AUTÒNOMA DE BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Anxiety disorders; Aversive conditioning; Avoidance; Exposure therapy; Fear acquisition; Fear reduction; Habituation; Phobias; Rituals; Sensitization

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANXIETY; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; CLINICAL ARTICLE; HABITUATION; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; PHOBIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMAL; ANXIETY; EVOLUTION; FEAR; HUMAN; LEARNING; SUPPORT, NON-U.S. GOV'T;

EID: 0025696495     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80059-4     Document Type: Article

References (222)

1. Stimulus-response relationships in phobia
2. Effects of extinction techniques on avoidance response
3. Relation between extinction techniques and extinction of avoidance response in albino rats
4. The search for a general theory of behavior
5. Learning in a marine snail
6. Transfer of experimenter-imposed slow-response patterns to the extinction of a continuously rewarded response
7. The conditioned emotional response as a function of intensity of the US
8. The conditioned emotional response as a function of intensity of the US
9. One stressful event blocks multiple actions of diazepam for up to at least a month
10. Choosing between predictable and unpredictable shock conditions: data and theory
11. Habituation of the deimatic response in the mantid (Stagmatoptera biocellata)
12. Electric aversion therapy of sexual deviations
13. On the validity of the animal model for exposure therapy (flooding)
14. Instrumental learning
15. Extinction of avoidance in rats the effets of chlorpromazine and methylphenidate administered in conjunction with flooding (response prevention)
16. Flooding (response prevention) in rats effect of immediate vs delayed flooding and of changed illuminations during flooding
17. Extinction of an avoidance response following response prevention some parametric investigations
18. Irrelevant stress experience vs. response prevention (flooding) interpolated between avoidance acquisition and extinction in rats
19. Extinction of avoidance responding in rats is facilitated by noise
20. Factors involved in the rapid elimination of avoidance behaviour
21. The anxiolytic action of benzodiazepines is not present in handling habituated rats
22. Handling-habituation prevents the effects of diazepam and alprazolam and brain serotonin levels in rats
23. Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning
24. Does CS termination reinforce avoidance behaviour?
25. Lactate induced anxiety: therapeutic applications
26. Cognitive avoidance, anticipated frustrative non-reward, and issues of control in human anxiety
27. Context, event memories and extinction
28. Context and ambiguity in the extinction of emotional learning: Implications for exposure therapy
29. Sources of relapse after extinction in Pavlovian and instrumental learning
30. The effects of shock intensity on fear incubation (enhancement)
31. Chronic handling modifies the anxiolytic effect of diazepam in the elevated plus-maze
32. The Maudsley reactive and nonreactive strains of rats: a survey
33. Lymphocyte β-adrenergic receptor binding in panic disorder
34. Retention of aversively motivated behaviour
35. An introduction to cellular approaches used in the analysis of habituation and sensitization in Aplysia
36. Neurobiological function in panic anxiety: evidence for noradrenergic hyperactivity
37. Noradrenergic function in panic anxiety: effects of yohimbine in healthy subjects and patients with agoraphobia and panic disorder
38. Habituation of the polychaete Nereis to sudden stimuli
39. Maudsley reactive and non-reactive rat strains: Differential performance in a conflict task
40. Preparedness and phobia: effects of stimulus content on human visceral conditioning
41. Second order conditioning and overshadowing in the observational conditioning of fear in monkeys
42. Observational conditioning of fear to fear-relevant vs. fear-irrelevant stimuli in rhesus monkeys
43. Observational conditioning of snake fear in unrelated rhesus monkeys
44. Cultural transmission of enemy recognition
45. Long-term effects of yohimbine on behavioral sensitivity to a stressor
46. Diazepam and flurazepam effects on conditioned fear as uncovered with the potentiated startled paradigm
47. Effects of interstimulus interval length and variability on startle-response habituation in the rat
48. Neural systems involved in fear-potentiated startle
49. Intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of habituation and sensitization: implications for the design and analysis of experiments
50. An animal analogue to systematic desensitization and elimination of avoidance
51. Exposure to the aversive stimulus in an animal analogue to systematic desensitization
52. Post-response exposure to warning signal in avoidance extinction
53. Counterconditioning and exposure only in the treatment of specific conditioned suppression
54. Does escape behaviour strengthen agoraphobic avoidance? A preliminary study
55. Selection for extreme differences in two-way avoidance: is anxiety or depression involved?
56. Librium prevents the analgesia and shuttlebox escape deficit typically observed following inescapable shock
57. Three cases of the ‘conditioned’ fear response
58. The conditioning model of neurosis
59. The learning theory model of neurosis—a new approach
60. Prodomal symptoms in panic disorder with agoraphobia
61. Comparison of two flooding procedures in reducing avoidances and skin conductance responses in human volunteers
62. The contribution of behavioural studies to the neuropharmacology of anxiety
63. Emotional processing of fear
64. On the manifestation of conditioned defensive reactions in stress
65. Effects of acute and chronic imipramine administration on conflict behavior in the rat: a potential ‘animal model’ for the study of panic disorder?
66. Effects of acute and chronic antipanic drug administration on conflict behavior in the rat
67. Orienting and defensive reactions to phobic and conditioned fear stimuli in phobics and normals
68. Cardiovascular and electrodermal responses conditioned to fear-relevant stimuli
69. Electrodermal conditioning to potentially phobic stimuli
70. A nonhuman primate model of panic disorder
71. The relationship of panic disorder to agoraphobia
72. 3H-Diazepam binding sites in Roman High- and Low-avoidance rats
73. The induction of tonic immobility in animals
74. Increased efficacy of flooding (response prevention) in rats through intracranial stimulation
75. 2 induced anxiety symptoms
76. Cellular mechanism of classical conditioning in Aplysia: activity-dependent amplification of presynaptic facilitation
77. Forgetting of conditioned fear inhibition
78. Acquisition and retention of control of instrumental behavior by a cue-signaling airblast How specific are conditioned anticipations
79. Factors governing the strength of the partially inborn mobbing response of the chaffinch (Frinchilla coelebs) III Interaction of short- and long-term effects
80. Health and the social environment
81. Biological vs experiential factors in phobic conditioning
82. Animal models of anxiety
83. Biological basis of childhood shyness
84. Retention of an incompletely learned avoidance response
85. Conditioned suppression as a monitor of fear of the CS in the course of avoidance training
86. From metapsychology to molecular biology: explorations into the nature of anxiety
87. Behavior therapy for relapse prevention to heroin use
88. Extinguishing avoidance responses as a function of delayed warning signal termination
89. Effect of exposure to conditioned stimulus and control of its termination in the extinction of avoidance behavior
90. Effects of exteroceptive feedback stimuli on extinguishing avoidance responses in Fisher rats
91. Anxiolytic effects of buspirone and gepirone in fear-potentiated startle paradigms
92. Anxiety reconceptualized
93. Alprazolam and cognitive behavior therapy for panic disorder
94. Post-traumatic stress disorder after car accidents
95. Psychogenic urinary retention: treatment by prolonged exposure
96. Habituation from a comparative perspective
97. Onset of panic with agoraphobia: towards an integrated model
98. Symptom maintenance: extension of the conservation of anxiety principle
99. Lactate provocation of panics: I. Clinical and behavioral findings
100. Therapeutic approaches to compulsive neurosis
101. Preparedness and phobias: a review
102. Preparedness and the resistance to extinction to fear-relevant stimuli: a failure to replicate
103. The preparedness theory of phobias: the effects of initial fear level on safety-signal conditioning to fear-relevant stimuli
104. Etiology and maintenance of severe animal phobias
105. Neurobiology, psychology and habituation
106. The time course of learned helplessness, inactivity and nocioceptive deficits in rats
107. Stimulus significance and bilateral SCRs to potentially phobic picture
108. Behavioral dissociation of dishabituation, sensitization, and inhibition in Aplysia
109. Phylogenesis and learning in the acquisition of fetishism
110. Phobias and obsessions: clinical phenomena in search of a laboratory model
111. Alprazolam and exposure for panic disorder with agoraphobia
112. What do the neurosciences tell us about anxiety disorders? A comment
113. Fear responses of bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) to a model and a alive red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis)
114. Vicious circle behavior
115. Learnable drives and rewards
116. Learning of visceral and glandular responses
117. Various flooding procedures to reduce fear and extinguish jump-up avoidance
118. Effects of flooding an irrelevant response on the extinction of avoidance responses
119. The role of fear in theories of avoidance learning, flooding and extinction
120. Animal models of anxiety-based disorders: their usefulness and limitations
121. The frightful complexity of the origins of fears
122. Controllability and predictability in acquired motivation
123. Unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events and experimental neurosis
124. The role of cognitive biases in the origins and maintenance of fear and anxiety disorders
125. Effects of rearing infant rhesus monkeys in controllable and uncontrollable environments on emotional responsivity and social development
126. Observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys
127. Dissociative effects of flooding on a multivariate assessment of fear reduction and on jump-up avoidance extinction
128. Incubation of avoidance behavior: strain differences in susceptibility
129. In the dual nature of learning: a reinterpretation of “conditioning” and problem solving
130. The onset of driving phobias
131. The origins of fear of snakes
132. Habituation and tonic immobility in domestic chickens
133. Habituation and memory
134. Evolution, learning and phobias: An interactional analysis
135. An evolutionary perspective on human social behavior
136. Equipotentiality in human classical conditioning: conditioned electrodermal responses to potentially phobic stimuli
137. Towards an experimental model for simple phobic reactions
138. Animal and social phobias: biological constraints on learned fear responses
139. PTSD after rape
140. Facilitated extinction of an avoidance response through shortening of the inter-trial interval
141. Facial expressions of emotion as conditioned stimuli for human autonomic responses
142. Long-term followup after exposure for phobic and obsessive-compulsive disorders
143. Acquisition of phobias and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients
144. Acquisition of agoraphobia, mode of onset anxiety response patterns
145. Acquisition of blood and dental phobia and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients
146. Phylogenetic comparisons of tonic immobility with special reference to habituation and fear
147. Agoraphobia: a safety signal perspective
148. Fear and courage
149. Panic, fear-reduction and habituation
150. Interoceptive conditioning, semantic conditioning, and the orienting reflex
151. Pavlovian conditioning: it's not what you think it is
152. Reinstatement of fear to an extinguished conditioned stimulus
153. Inhibition of avoidant behavior
154. Temporal placement and response prevention of avoidance on extinction of avoidance in rats
155. Memory retrieval deficits based upon altered contextual cues: a paradox
156. The origin and maintenance of phobias
157. Associations in second-order conditioning and sensory preconditioning
158. Differences in bz receptor binding in Maudsley reactive and non-reactive rats
159. Paradoxical enhancement of learned fear
160. Paradoxical enhancement of conditioned suppression
161. Positive and negative partial-reinforcement extinction effects carried through continuous reinforcement, changed motivation and changed response
162. JB Watson's Little Albert, Cyril Burt's twins, and the need for a critical science
163. Lack of spatial generalization in habituation tests of fowl
164. Effect of spatial context of the mobbing response of pied flycatchers to a predator model
165. Predator-prey behavior and habituation
166. A conditioned opponent theory of Pavlovian conditioning and habituation
167. On the generality of the laws of learning
168. Morphine tolerance acquisition as an associative process
169. Extinction of well established avoidance responses through response prevention (flooding)
170. The opponent process theory of acquired motivation: the cost of pleasure and the benefits of pain
171. An opponent process theory of motivation: Temporal dynamics of affect
172. Traumatic avoidance learning: principles of anxiety conservation and partial irreversibility
173. Traumatic avoidance learning: several extinction procedures with dogs
174. Reconciling the role of central serotonin neurons in human and animal behaviour
175. Backward conditioning: a reevaluation of the empirical evidence
176. Determinants of fear over the course of avoidance learning
177. Imipramine and alprazolam treatment of lactate-induced acute endogenous distress in nonhuman primates
178. Ethology: Animal models of psychopathology
179. Peripheral, automatic regulation of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons in brain: putative implications for psychiatry and psychopharmacology
180. Learning models of obsessional-compulsive disorder
181. Habituation; a model phenomenon for the study of removed substrates of behavior
182. Obsessional facilitation of response prevention
183. Behavioral treatment of obsessive-compulsives: inpatient vs outpatient
184. Habituation and memory
185. The application of learning principles to the treatment of obsessive compulsive state in the acute and chronic phases of illness
186. Relevant and irrelevant fear in flooding
187. Conditioned emotional reactions
188. Physiological habituation to continuous phobic stimulation
189. Depression in animal models: focus on the locus coerleus
190. Behavioral depression produced by an uncontrollable stressor: relationship to norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin levels in various regions of rat brain
191. Recovery from traumatic experience in rats: specific “treatment” vs passage of time
192. Panic disorder: a product of classical conditioning
193. Paradoxical enhancement of learned anxiety responses