Global genetic structure and molecular epidemiology of encapsulated haemophilus influenzae

Reviews of Infectious Diseases

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 1990, Pages 75-111

  Musser, James M ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Kroll, J Simon ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Granoff, Dan M ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Moxon, E Richard ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Brodeur, Bernard R ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Campos, Jose ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Dabernat, Henri ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Frederiksen, Wilhelm ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Hamel, Josee ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Hammond, Gregory ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Høiby, E Arne ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Jonsdottir, Kristin E ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Kabeer, Mustafa ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Kallings, Ingegerd ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Khan, Waheed N ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Kilian, Mogens ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Knowles, Kathleen ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Koornhof, H J ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Law, Barbara ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Li, Karl I ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Montgomery, Janet ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Pattison, Patricia E ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Piffaretti, Jean Claude ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Takala, Aino K ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Thong, Mee Len ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Wall, Robert A ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Ward, Joel I ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   Selander, Robert K ^{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w}   more..

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b JOHN RADCLIFFE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d HEALTH CANADA   (Canada)

^e HOSPITAL MATERNO INFANTIL VALL D HEBRON   (Spain)

^f CHU PURPAN   (France)

^g STATENS SERUM INSTITUT   (Denmark)

^h CADHAM PROVINCIAL LABORATORY   (Canada)

ⁱ NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (Norway)

^j UNIVERSITY OF ICELAND   (Iceland)

^k National Bacteriological Laboratory   (Sweden)

^l CHILDREN'S NATIONAL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^m UNIVERSITY OF AARHUS   (Denmark)

ⁿ MONTREAL CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^o NATIONAL HEALTH LABORATORY SERVICE   (South Africa)

^p UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^q CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

^r PAPUA NEW GUINEA INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL RESEARCH   (Papua New Guinea)

^s Inst Cantonale Batteriosierologico   (Switzerland)

^t NATIONAL PUBLIC HEALTH INSTITUTE   (Finland)

^u Pathology Department RWH North Brisbane Hospitals Board   (Australia)

^v Medical Research Council Laboratories ^*  (Australia)

^w HARBOR UCLA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

OUTER MEMBRANE PROTEIN;

BACTERIAL INFECTION; BACTERIUM; CLONE; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; ENCAPSULATION; ENZYME ELECTROPHORESIS; ETHNIC OR RACIAL ASPECTS; GENE STRUCTURE; GENE TRANSFER; GENOTYPE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE; HUMAN; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; PATHOGENICITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM; REVIEW; SEROTYPING;

ALLELES; BACTERIAL OUTER MEMBRANE PROTEINS; CHILD; ELECTROPHORESIS, POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL; ELECTROPHORESIS, STARCH GEL; ENZYMES; GENOTYPE; HAEMOPHILUS INFECTIONS; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE; HUMAN; POLYMORPHISM, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH; SEROTYPING; SUPPORT, NON-U.S. GOV'T; SUPPORT, U.S. GOV'T, P.H.S.; VARIATION (GENETICS);

EID: 0025177273     PISSN: 01620886     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/clinids/12.1.75     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Turk D.C., May J.R. Haemophilus influenzae: its clinical importance. London: English University Press, 1967
2. Sell S.H., Wright P.F., eds. Haemophilus influenzae: epidemiology, immunology, and prevention of disease. New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982
3. TUrk D.C. The pathogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae. J Med Microbiol 1984;18:1–16
4. Pittman M. Variation and type specificity in the bacterial species Hemophilus influenzae. J Exp Med 1931;53: 471–92
5. Kilian M. A taxonomic study of the genus Haemophilus, with the proposal of a new species. J Gen Microbiol 1976;93:9–62
6. Anderson P., Flesher A., Shaw S., Harding A.L., Smith D.H. Phenotypic and genetic variation in the susceptibility of Haemophilus influenzae type b to antibodies to somatic antigens. J Clin Invest 1980;65:885–91
7. Loeb M.R., Smith D.H. Outer membrane protein composition in disease isolates of Haemophilus influenzae: pathogenic and epidemiological implications. Infect Immun 1980;30:709–17
8. Barenkamp S.J., Munson R.S. Jr., Granoff D.M. Subtyping isolates of Haemophilus influenzae type b by outermembrane protein profiles. J Infect Dis 1981;143:668–76
9. van Alphen L., Riemens T., Poolman J., Hopman C., Zanen H.C. Homogeneity of cell envelope protein subtypes, lipopolysaccharide serotypes, and biotypes among Haemophilus influenzae type b from patients with meningitis in the Netherlands. J Infect Dis 1983;148:75–81
10. van Alphen L., Riemens T., Poolman J., Zanen H.C. Characteristics of major outer membrane proteins of Haemophilus influenzae. J Bacteriol 1983;155:878–85
11. Inzana T.J. Electrophoretic heterogeneity and interstrain variation of the lipopolysaccharide of Haemophilus influenzae. J Infect Dis 1983;148:492–9
12. Inzana T.J., Pichichero M.E. Lipopolysaccharide subtypes of Haemophilus influenzae type b from an outbreak of invasive disease. J Clin Microbiol 1984;20:145–50
13. Gulig P.A., Frisch C.F., Hansen E.J. A set of two monoclonal antibodies specific for the cell surface-exposed 39K major outer membrane protein of Haemophilus influenzae type b defines all strains of this pathogen. Infect Immun 1983;42:516–24
14. Gulig P.A., Hansen E.J. Coprecipitation of lipopolysacchride and the 39, 000–molecular–weight major outer membrane protein of Haemophilus influenzae type b by lipopoly–saccharide–directed monoclonal antibody. Infect Immun 1985;49:819–27
15. Kilian M., Sørensen I., Frederiksen W. Biochemical characteristics of 130 recent isolates from Haemophilus influenzae meningitis. J Clin Microbiol 1979;9:409–12
16. Tiller F.-W. Biochemical differentiation of Haemophilus influenzae. Additional characterization of biotypes by carbohydrate fermentation patterns. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [A] 1982;253:236–46
17. Tebbutt G.M. A chemotyping scheme for clinical isolates of Haemophilus influenzae. J Med Microbiol 1984;17:335–45
18. Hampton C.M., Barenkamp S.J., Granoff D.M. Comparison of outer membrane protein subtypes of Haemophilus influenzae type b isolates from healthy children in the general population and from diseased patients. J Clin Microbiol 1983;18:596–600
19. Granoff D.M., Barenkamp S.J., Munson R.S. Jr. Outer membrane protein subtypes for epidemiologic investigation of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease. In: Sell SH, Wright PF, eds. Haemophilus influenzae: epidemiology, immunology, and prevention of disease. New York: Elsevier/North-Holland, 1982:43–55
20. Musser J.M., Granoff D.M., Pattison P.E., Selander R.K. A population genetic framework for the study of invasive diseases caused by serotype b strains of Haemophilus influenzae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1985;82:5078–82
21. Musser J.M., Kroll J.S., Moxon E.R., Selander R.K. Clonal population structure of encapsulated Haemophilus influenzae. Infect Immun 1988;56:1837–45
22. Musser J.M., Kroll J.S., Moxon E.R., Selander R.K. Evolutionary genetics of the encapsulated strains of Haemophilus influenzae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:7758–62
23. van Alphen L., Geelen L., Jonsddttir K., Takala A.K., Kayhty H., Zanen H.C. Distinct geographic distribution of subtypes of Haemophilus influenzae type b in western Europe. J Infect Dis 1987;156:216–8
24. Allan I., Loeb M.R., Moxon E.R. Limited genetic diversity of Haemophilus influenzae (type b). Microb Pathog 1987;2:139–45
25. Allan I., Kroll J.S., Dhir A., Moxon E.R. Haemophilus influenzae serotype a: outer membrane protein classification and correlation with DNA polymorphism at the cap locus. Infect Immun 1988;56:529–31
26. Hoiseth S.K., Connelly C.J., Moxon E.R. Genetics of spontaneous, high–frequency loss of b capsule expression in Haemophilus influenzae. Infect Immun 1985;49:389–95
27. Barenkamp S.J., Granoff D.M., Pittman M. Outer membrane protein subtypes and biotypes of Haemophilus influenzae type b: relation between strains isolated in 1934–1954 and 1977–1980. J Infect Dis 1983;148:1127
28. Campos J., Garcia-Tomel S., Musser J.M., Selander R.K., Smith A.L. Molecular epidemiology of multiply resistant Haemophilus influenzae type b in day care centers. J Infect Dis 1987;156:483–9
29. Musser J.M., Barenkamp S.J., Granoff D.M., Selander R.K. Genetic relationships of serologically nontypable and serotype b strains of Haemophilus influenzae. Infect Immun 1986;52:183–91
30. Selander R.K., Caugant D.A., Ochman H., Musser J.M., Gilmour M.N., Whittam T.S. Methods of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis for bacterial population genetics and sys- tematics. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986;51:873–4
31. Laemmli U.K. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature 1970; 227:680–5
32. Lugtenberg B., Meijers J., Peters R., van der Hoek P., van Alphen L. Electrophoretic resolution of the ‘major outer membrane protein’ of Escherichia coli K12 into four bands. FEBS Lett 1975;58:254–8
33. Kroll J.S., Moxon E.R. Capsulation and gene copy number at the cap locus of Haemophilus influenzae type b. J Bacterid 1988;170:859–64
34. Nei M. Molecular evolutionary genetics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987
35. Sneath P.H.A., Sokal R.R. Numerical taxonomy: the principles and practice of numerical classification. San Francisco: Freeman, 1973
36. Catlin B.W., Bendler J.W. III, Goodgal S.H. The type b capsulation locus of Haemophilus influenzae’, map location and size. J Gen Microbiol 1972;70:411–22
37. Kroll J.S., Hopkins I., Moxon E.R. Capsule loss in H. influenzae type b occurs by recombination–mediated disruption of a gene essential for polysaccharide export. Cell 1988;53:347–56
38. Kilian M., Biberstein E.L. Genus I.I. Haemophilus Winslow, Broadhurst, Buchanan, Krumwiede, Rogers, and Smith 1917. In: Kreig NR, Holt JG, eds. Bergey’s manual of systematic bacteriology. Vol. 1. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984:558–69
39. Takala A.K., Musser J.M., Selander R.K. High prevalence of Haemophilus influenzae serotype b of a rare electrophoretic type 21 among invasive isolates in Finland [abstract no. 786]. In: Programs and abstracts of the 27th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1987
40. Takala A.K., van Alphen L., Musser J.M., Geelen L., Selander R.K., Eskola J., Makela P.H. Bacteriologic epidemiology of Hemophilus influenzae type b strains causing invasive infections in Finland. J Infect Dis 1989;160:237–42
41. Ward J.I., Lum M.K.W., Hall D.B., Silimperi D.R., Bender T.R. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Alaska: background epidemiology for a vaccine efficacy trial. J Infect Dis 1986;153:17–26
42. Ward J., Burkart K., Christenson P., Fitzgerald M., Musser J., Selander R. Outer membrane protein (OMP) and isoenzyme analysis of Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) strains in Alaska [abstract no. 785]. In: Programs and abstracts of the 27th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1987
43. Losonsky G.A., Santosham M., Sehgal V.M., Zwahlen A., Moxon E.R. Haemophilus influenzae disease in the White Mountain Apaches: molecular epidemiology of a high risk population. Pediatr Infect Dis 1984;3:539–47
44. Slatkin M. Rare alleles as indicators of gene flow. Evolution 1985;39:53–65
45. Ochman H., Whittam T.S., Caugant D.A., Selander R.K. Enzyme polymorphism and genetic population structure in Escherichia coli and Shigella. J Gen Microbiol 1983; 129:2715–26
46. Selander R.K., McKinney R.M., Whittam T.S., Bibb W.F., Brenner D.J., Nolte F.S., Pattison P.E. Genetic structure of populations of Legionella pneumophila. J Bacteriol 1985; 163:1021–37
47. Brenner D.J., Steigerwalt A.G., Epple P., Bibb W.F., McKinney R.M., Starnes R.W.M., Colville J.M., Selander R.K., Edelstein P.H., Moss C.W. Legionella pneumophila serogroup Lansing 3 isolated from a patient with fatal pneumonia, and descriptions of L. pneumophila subsp. pneumophila subsp. nov., L. pneumophila subsp. fraseri subsp. nov., and L. pneumophila subsp. pascullei subsp. nov. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26:1695–1703
48. Musser J.M., Hewlett E.L., Peppier M.S., Selander R.K. Genetic diversity and relationships in populations of Bordetella spp. J Bacteriol 1986;166:230–7
49. Yamada Y., Akita M. An electrophoretic comparison of enzymes in strains of Gluconobacter species. J Gen Appl Microbiol 1984;30:115–26
50. Gilmour M.N., Whittam T.S., Kilian M., Selander R.K. Genetic relationships among the oral streptococci. J Bacteriol 1987;169:5247–57
51. Chun P.K., Sensabaugh G.F., Vedros N.A. Genetic relationships among Neisseria species assessed by comparative enzyme electrophoresis. J Gen Microbiol 1985;131:3105–15
52. Selander R.K., Musser J.M., Caugant D.A., Gilmour M.N., Whittam T.S. Population genetics of pathogenic bacteria. Microb Pathog 1987;3:1–7
53. Tibayrenc M., Ayala F.J. Isozyme variability in Drypanosomacruzi, the agent of Chagas’ disease: genetical, taxonomical, and epidemiological significance. Evolution 1988; 42:277–92
54. Beverley S.M., Ismach R.B., Pratt D.M. Evolution of the genus Leishmania as revealed by comparisons of nuclear DNA restriction fragment patterns. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987;84:484–8
55. Caccone A., Powell J.R. Molecular evolutionary divergence among North American cave crickets. II. DNA-DNA hybridization. Evolution 1987;41:1215–38
56. Eskola J., Peltola H., Takala A.K., Kayhty H., Hakulinen M., Karanko V., Kela E., Rekola P., Ronnberg P.-R., Samuelson J.S., Gordon L.K., Makela P.H. Efficacy of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide–diphtheria toxoid conjugate vaccine in infancy. N Engl J Med 1987;317:717–22
57. Zwahlen A., Rubin L.G., Moxon E.R. Contribution of lipopolysaccharide to pathogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae: comparative virulence of genetically-related strains in rats. Microb Pathog 1986;1:465–73
58. Kroll J.S., Zamze S., Loynds B., Moxon E.R. Common organization of chromosomal loci for production of different capsular polysaccharides in Haemophilus influenzae. J Bacteriol 1989;171:3343–7
59. Cope L., Edgley H., Hansen E. Lack of genetic competence among strains of Haemophilus influenzae type b [abstract no. D-36]. In: Abstracts of the 89th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1989:88
60. Loeb M.R., Woodin K.A. Cross–reactivity of surface–exposed epitopes of outer membrane antigens of Haemophilus influenzae type b. Infect Immun 1987;55:2977–83
61. Takala A.K., van Alphen L., Eskola J., Palmgren J., Bol P., Makela P.H. Haemophilus influenzae type b strains of outer membrane subtypes 1 and lc cause different types of invasive disease. Lancet 1987;2:647–50
62. Selander R.K., Caugant D.A., Whittam T.S. Genetic structure and variation in natural populations of Escherichia coli. In: Neihardt FC, Ingraham JL, Low KB, Magasanik B, Schaechter M, Umbarger HE, eds. Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium: cellular and molecular biology. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1987:1625–48
63. Mendelman P.M., Syriopoulou V.P., Gandy S.L., Ward J.I., Smith A.L. Molecular epidemiology of plasmid-mediated ampicillin resistance in Haemophilus influenzae type b isolates from Alaska. J Infect Dis 1985;151:1061–72
64. Willard J.E., Johnson E.J., Daum R.S. Interrelationships between physical state, phenotypic stability and transferability of β–lactamase genes in Haemophilus influenzae. J Gen Microbiol 1982;128:2353–60
65. Campos J., Garcia-Tomel S., Musser J.M., Selander R.K., Smith A.L. Molecular epidemiology of multiply resistant Haemophilus influenzae type b in day care centers. J Infect Dis 1987;156:483–9
66. Simasathien S., Duangmani C., Echeverria P. Haemophilusinfluenzae type b resistant to ampicillin and chloramphenicol in an orphanage in Thailand. Lancet 1980;2:1214–7
67. O’Brien T.F., Pla M.P., Mayer K.H., Kishi H., Gilleece E., Syvanen M., Hopkins J.D. Intercontinental spread of a new antibiotic resistance gene on an epidemic plasmid. Science 1985;230:87–8
68. Musser J.M., Bemis D.A., Ishikawa H., Selander R.K. Clonal diversity and host distribution in Bordetella bronchiseptica. J Bacteriol 1987;169:2793–803
69. Beltran P., Musser J.M., Helmuth R., Farmer J.J. III, Frerichs W.M., Waschsmuth I.K., Ferris K., McWhorter A.C., Wells J.G., Cravioto A., Selander R.K. Toward a population genetic analysis of Salmonella: genetic diversity and relationships among strains of serotypes S. choleraesuis, S. derby, S. dubiin, S. enteritidis, S. heidelberg, S. inf antis, S. newport, and S. typhimurium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:7753–7
70. Ghafoor A., Weinbeig G.A., Ishaq Z., Anwar F., Khalid Nomani N., Kabeer M., Musser J.M., Granoff D.M. An epidemic of bacteremic nontypable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHI) respiratory infection (ARI) in children in Pakistan [abstract no. 895]. In: Programs and abstracts of the 28th Intersciences Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1988
71. Weinberg G.A., Ghafoor A., Ishaq Z., Nomani N.K., Kabeer M., Anwar F., Burney M.I., Qureshi A.W., Musser J.M., Selander J.M., Granoff D.M. Clonal analysis of Hemophilus influenzae strains isolated from children from Pakistan with lower respiratory tract infections. J Infect Dis 1989;160:634–43
72. Munson R.S. Jr, Kabeer M.H., Lenoir A.A., Granoff D.M. Epidemiology and prospects for prevention of disease due to Haemophilus influenzae in developing countries. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11(Suppl):S588–97
73. Bjamason O., Bjamason V., Edwards J.H., Fridriksson S., Magnusson M., Mourant A.E., Tills D. The blood groups of Icelanders. Ann Hum Genet 1973;36:425–58
74. Thompson E.A. The Icelandic admixture problem. Ann Hum Genet 1973;37:69–80
75. Cliff A., Haggett P. Island epidemics. Sci Am 1984;250(5): 138–47
76. Kawakami Y., Okimura Y., Kanai M. Biochemical properties and antimicrobial susceptibility of recent clinical isolates of Haemophilus species. Microbiol Immunol 1981;25:79–84
77. Uehara S., Terashima I., Nakamura A., Kurosaki T., Sugaya N., Okimoto Y., Himi K. The role of Haemophilus influenzae in lower respiratory infections in childhood. Acta Paediatra Jpn 1985;89:94–101
78. Thong M.L., Puthucheary S.D., Omar A. Haemophilus influenzae meningitis. Asean J Clin Sci 1983;4:47–56
79. Sherry B., Emanuel I., Kronmal R.A., Smith A.L., Char L.F., Gale J.L., Walkley E. Interannual variation of the incidence of Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis. JAMA 1989;261:1924–9
80. Petersen G.M., Silimperi D.R., Roter J.I., Terasaki P.I., Schanfield M.S., Park M.S., Ward J.I. Genetic factors in Haemophilus influenzae type b disease susceptibility and antibody acquisition. J Pediatr 1987;110:228–33
81. Siber G.R., Santosham M., Priehs C.M., Reid R., Letson W., Madore D., Eby R. Impaired antibody (ab) response to H. influenzae b (Hib) capsular polysaccharide (CP) in Native American children [abstract no. 326]. In: Programs and abstracts of the 27th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1987
82. Blackwell C.C., Jdnsddttir K., Hanson M., Tbdd W.T.A., Chaudhuri A.K.R., Mathew B., Brettle R.P., Weir D.M., Nonsecretion of ABO antigens predisposing to infection by Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae [letter]. Lancet 1986;2:284–85
83. Blackwell C.C., Jonsdottir K., Hanson M.F., Weir D.M. Nonsecretion of ABO blood group antigens predisposing to infection by Haemophilus influenzae [letter]. Lancet 1986;2:687
84. Cavalli-Sforza L.L., Bodmer W.B. The genetics of human populations. San Franciso: W. H. Freeman, 1971
85. Cavalli-Sforza L.L., Piazza A., Menozzi P., Mountain J. Reconstruction of human evolution: bringing together genetic, arachaeological, and linguistic data. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:6002–6
86. Kubitschek H.E. Operation of selection pressure on microbial populations. In: Carlile MJ, Skehel JJ, eds. Evolution in the microbial world. London: Cambridge University Press, 1974:105–30
87. Koch A.L. The pertinence of the periodic selection phenomenon to prokaryote evolution. Genetics 1974;77:127–42
88. Levin B.R. Periodic selection, infectious gene exchange and the genetic structure of E. coli populations. Genetics 1981;99:1–23
89. Caugant D.A., Frøholm L.O., Bøvre K., Holten E., Frasch C.E., Mocca L.F., Zollinger W.D., Selander R.K. Intercontinental spread of a genetically distinctive complex of clones of Neisseria meningitidis causing epidemic disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986;83:4927–31
90. Palese P., Kingsbury D.W., eds. Genetics of influenza viruses. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1983
91. Stuart-Harris C., Potter C.W. The molecular virology and epidemiology of influenza. London: Academic Press. 1984
92. Woese C.R. Bacterial evolution. Microbiol Rev 1987;51:221–71
93. Selander R.K., Levin B.R. Genetic diversity and structure in Escherichia coli populations. Science 1980;210:545–7
94. Ochman H., Wilson A.C. Evolutionary history of enteric bacteria. In: Neihardt FC, Ingraham JL, Low KB, Magasanik B, Schaechter M, Umbarger HE, eds. Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium: cellular and molecular biology. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1987:1649–54
95. Chakraborty R., Szathmary E.J.E., eds. Progress in clinical and biological research. Vol. 194. Diseases of complex etiology in small populations. Ethnic differences and research approaches. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1985
96. Dawson B., Zinnemann K. Incidence and type distribution of capsulated H, influenzae strains. Br Med J 1952;1:740–2
97. Masters P.L., Brumfitt W., Mendez R.L., Likar M. Bacterial flora of the upper respiratory tract in Paddington families, 1952–4. Br Med J 1958;1:1200–5
98. Turk D.C. Naso–pharyngeal carriage of Haemophilus influenzae type b. J Hyg (Lond) 1963;61:247–56
99. Straker E.A. Serological typing of meningeal strains of H. influenzae. Lancet 1945;1:817
100. Schiffer M.S., MacLowry J., Schneerson R., Robbins J.B., McReynolds J.W., Thomas W.J., Bailey D.W., Clarke E.J. Jr, Mueller E.J., Escamilla J. Clinical, bacteriological, and immunological characterisation of ampicillin-resistant Hemophilus influenzae type b. Lancet 1974;2:257–9
101. Ward J.I., Gorman G., Phillips C., Fraser D.W. Haemophilusinfluenzae type b disease in a day–care center. Report of an outbreak. J Pediatr 1978;92:713–7
102. Yogev R., Lander H.B., Davis A.T. Effect of TMF–SMX on nasopharyngeal carriage of ampicillin–sensitive and ampicillin–resistant Hemophilus influenzae type b. J Pediatr 1978;93:394–7
103. Granoff D.M., Sheetz K., Pandey J.P., Nahm M.H., Rambeck J.H., Jacobs J.L., Musser J., Selander R.K., Kabeer M., Murphy T.V., Osterholm M.T. Host and bacterial factors associated with Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Minnesota children vaccinated with type b polysaccharide vaccine. J Infect Dis 1989;159:908–16
104. Mayr E. Animal species and evolution. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963
105. Whittam T.S., Ochman H., Selander R.K. Geographic components of linkage disequilibrium in natural populations of Escherichia coli. Mol Biol Evol 1983;1:67–83
106. Musser J.M., Rapp V.J., Selander R.K. Clonal diversity in Haemophilus pleuropneumoniae. Infect Immun 1987;55: 1207–15
107. Gilsdorf J.R. Bacterial meningitis in southwestern Alaska. Am J Epidemiol 1977;106:388–91
108. Ward J.I., Brenneman G., Letson G., Heyward W., the Alaska Vaccine Efficacy Trial Study Group. Limited protective efficacy of an H. influenzae type b conjugate vaccine PRF- D in Native Alaskan infants immunized at 2-, 4-, and 6-months of age [abstract no. 1127], In: Programs and abstracts of the 28th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1988
109. Crowe B.A., Wall R.A., Kusecek B., Neumann B., Olyhoek T., Abdillahi H., Hassan-King M., Greenwood B.M., Poolman J.T., Achtman M. Clonal and variable properties of Neisseria meningitidis isolated from cases and carriers during and after an epidemic in The Gambia, West Africa. J Infect Dis 1989;159:686–700
110. Poulsen K., Hjorth J.P., Kilian M. Limited diversity of the immunoglobulin A1 protease gene (iga) among Haemophilus influenzae serotype b strains. Infect Immun 1988;56:987–92
111. Miller J.F., Mekalanos J.J., Falkow S. Coordinate regulation and sensory transduction in the control of bacterial virulence. Science 1989;243:916–22
112. Lee J.J., Smith H.O., Redfield R.J. Organization of the Haemophilus influenzae Rd genome. J Bacteriol 1989;171: 3016–24
113. Brazilian Purpuric Fever Study Group. Brazilian purpuric fever: epidemic purpura fulminans associated with antecedent purulent conjuctivitis. Lancet 1987;2:757–61
114. Olyhoek T., Crowe B.A., Achtman M. Clonal population structure of Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A isolated from epidemics and pandemics between 1915 and 1983. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9:665–92
115. Caugant D.A., Mocca L.F., Frasch C.E., Frøholm L.O., Zollinger W.D., Selander R.K. Genetic structure of Neisseria meningitidis populations in relation to serogroup, serotype, and outer membrane protein pattern. J Bacteriol 1987;169: 2781–92
116. Selander R.K., Musser J.M. The population genetics of bacterial pathogenesis. In: Iglewski BH, Clark VL, eds. Molecular basis of bacterial pathogenesis. Orlando: Academic Press, 1990 (in press)