The Military and Society: The Turkish Case

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1989, Pages 387-404

  Brown, James ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARMED FORCES RECRUITMENT; MILITARY INTERVENTION; POLITICS;

TURKEY;

EID: 0024904689     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: 17437881     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263208908700788     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier (New York: The Free Press, 1960), p. 81.
2. John Higley, G. Lowell Field and Knut Grøhold, Elite Structures and Ideology. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), p. 177. In this tome the authors find that srong and systematic associations of social background variables to specific elite political attitudes and ideology are difficult to find.
3. Dankwart A. Rustow, ‘The Army and the Founding of the Turkish Republic’, World Politics, July 1959, p. 533.
4. From as early as 1909 Atatürk had opposed the mingling of political and military functions. The Constitution of 1923 further reinforced this view which forbade Deputies from holding military office.
5. Feroz Ahmad, The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950–75 (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1977), p. 7.
6. Ibid., pp. 6–7.
7. Frederick W. Frey, The Turkish Political Elites (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1965), pp. 181 and 283. From the first to the eighth Cabinets (1920–50) the military averaged about 20 per cent of the places. After 1950 this dropped to only 8 per cent of the members of Cabinets. In the Assembly former military officers during 1920–46 averaged about 18 per cent. In 1950 this figure drops to 6 per cent and in 1954 even lower to 4 per cent.
8. Ibid., p. 10.
9. Joseph S. Szyliowicz, ‘Elites and the Modernization of Turkey’, in Frank Tachau (ed.) Political Elites and Political Development in the Middle East (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975), pp. 32–3.
10. Ibid., p. 10.
11. Roderic H. Davison, Turkey (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968), pp. 157–8.
12. Frey, op. cit., p. 141. The traditional vocations of Turkish society at this time were government, military, religion and agriculture.
13. Ataüirk's desire was to create a pure Turkish state. This meant a separation of Islam from the state. Thus Atatürk's message was twofold: nationalism and secularism. The societal reforms he introduced primarily in the 1920s derived less from any kind of complex philosophy about politics, than his intent to pursue the path of westernization, which was to him the only viable course for Turkey. There are six principles or arrows of Kemalism: secularism, republicanism, etatism, populism, nationalism and reformation.
14. For a more detailed discussion see Dankwart A. Rustow, ‘Turkey's Second Try at Democracy’, Yale Review, Summer, 1963.
15. Ahmad, op. cit., p. 148.
16. Davison, cit., 151–3.
17. Frey, op. cit., p. 283.
18. As quoted in Tachau, op. cit., p. 45. New legislation improved the status of military personnel, and their social status improved. Recruitment of officers to high posts was encouraged. The creation of the Army Mutual Assistance Association (OYAK) brought the military directly into business and industry. Within a few years OYAK became one of the countries largest conglomerates.
19. Thirty-eight Army and Air Force officers took power in the name of a National Unity Committee (NUC). In November 1960 NUC undertook major purges of the armed forces: some 5300 officers were retired, mostly generals and colonels. A more drastic result of this coup was that the Democrat Party was outlawed and Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and two former cabinet ministers were hanged on the island of Yassiada in the Bosphorus.
20. Frey, op. cit., p. 261. The author suggests that the 1960 coup d'éat can be understood by the military's loss of its overall support in the Grand National Assembly and of its declining representation at the top leadership levels of the government. The 1982 Constitution provides for the creation of the National Security Council which provides the Prime Minister and his Cabinet a vehicle whereby the military can voice their views directly on national security affairs. Its membership consists of the Prime Minister, the Chief of the General Staff, the Ministers of National Defense, Internal Affairs, and Foreign Affairs, the Commanders of the Army, Navy, and Air Force and the General Commander of the Gendarmerie, under the chairmanship of the President of the Republic.
21. Law No. 1773 enacted in June, 1973 outlined jurisdiction of civilian courts. Also, Articles 141, 142 and 163 were reversed. This allowed the state courts to arrest and detain any suspect leftist or right-wing Islamist, regardless of the presence or absence of a crime.
22. The Republican People's Party received 185 seats; Justice Party 149; National Salvation Party 48; Democratic Party 45; Republican Reliance Party 13; the National Muslim Party 3; and Independents 6.
23. Keesing's Contemporary Archives (London: Longman Group, 1975), 1 July 1975.
24. The wave of violence claimed over 2300 lives in the period 1978–80. At the beginning of 1980 there were approximately 28 deaths daily. This violence was between left-and right-wing students, Kurd insurrectionists, and Islamic fundamentalist (Alawi v. Sunni).
25. It was reported that the National Security Council warned the politicians, both privately and publicly, at least six times during the first party of 1980.
26. For a detail discussion of both Demirel's and Ecevit's responses see Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Vol. VII, 3 January 1980, pp. T1–2.
27. FBIS, Vol. VII, 16 September 1980, p.T-3.
28. Emphasis added by the author. FBIS, Vol. VII, 17 September 1980, p.T-1.
29. At present the Grand National Assembly consists of the Motherland Party, 292 seats; the Social Democratic Party, 99 seats; and the True Path Party, 59 seats. Today there are nine provinces under a state of emergency. Most of the unrest today is in the southeast provinces.
30. Defense Minister Safa Giray's ministry is basically an adjunct to the Turkish General Staff. His prime responsibilities are in the areas of personnel, procurement, supplies and implementation of the budget. All major decisions for the Turkish armed forces are made by the Turkish General Staff. This is the supreme body.
31. Prime Minister Özal has been criticized for allowing members of his party to espouse publicly Islamic fundamentalism.
32. Adapted from Richard H. Dekmejian ‘Egypt and Turkey: The Military in the Background’ in Roman Kolkowicz and Andrzej Korbonski (Eds.), Soldiers, Peasants, and Bureaucrats (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982), pp. 29–31.
33. All data within this section of this paper were provided by the Turkish General Staff or a subordinate command by order Gnkur. Bsk. Irginin 22175 C Mar 85 gün ve Gn. P. P.: 0050-186-85/Strj. Kv. Pl. (Strj. 6996) sayile mesaji. signed General Necdet Öztorun, Deputy Chief of the General Staff, 16 April 1985.
34. Very few officers came by way of the non-comissioned officers and reserve officers’ ranks. It is estimated that this figure is less than 1 per cent of the total officer corps of some 75,000.
35. Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in the Developing Nations (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 132. The military academies, or as they are known in Turkey, the War Colleges, were created as follows: Kara Harp Okulu-Army (1834); Deniz Harp Okulu-Navy (1773); and Hava Harp Okulu-Air Force (1951). Admission to one of these schools is gained through competitive examinations, and it presupposes a clean political and civil record, excellent health, and a strong preparation in mathematics and natural sciences. The War Colleges are state-supported institutions under the control of the Turkish General Staff.
36. A heavy emphasis has been placed on the study of modern Turkish history and on Kemalism. The cadets at the military high schools and at the War Colleges are required to take a minimum of one hour per week, for all four years of their enrollment at each institution.
37. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State (New York: A Vintage Book1964), P-79.
38. There are three military high schools devoted to the Army: Kuleli (Istanbul), Isiklar (Bursa), and Maltepe (Izmir); the Navy has one: the Naval Lycée on Heybeliada (Istanbul). These institutions provide a free education to the students and are under the control of the Turkish General Staff. All students enrolled in these institutions get heavy doses of science and mathematics. Furthermore, foreign language training is required of all students, with the emphasis on English. For example, at Kuleli a total of 1925 hours or 39 per cent of the four-year instruction is in English. As for the War Colleges, admission is attained through competitive examinations, and presupposes a clean political and civil record for the student and his family.
39. The first year at the military high schools is preparatory in nature. Of the total of 38 hours of course instruction weekly, 28 hours are devoted to English and Composition, and the remaining 10 hours are spent on the study of Turkish language and literature, art and music, gymnastics, history of the revolution and guidance and counselling. The number of hours of at the Naval is similar.
40. The military high schools at Bursa and Izmir emphasize German and French.
41. For an excellent discussion of the role of the military in the Revolution see Rostow, op. cit., World Politics, July 1959.
42. Of the total of 654,400 men under arms the Army is the largest of the services with some 542,000 officers and conscripts. It also has the largest number of places for promotions and assignments and controls the lion's share of positions at the Turkish General Staff. The Chief of the Turkish General Staff is always from the Army. The Military Balance 1985–1986 (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1987–88), pp. 77–8.
43. On completion of four years the cadet will receive either a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science degree. Until 1969 the education at the academies was for only two years. From 1969—74 it was expanded to three years and in 1975 it became a four-year course of study.
44. The turning-point and principal ‘gate’ of an officer's career is at the rank of Captain. His admittance to and completion of the course at the War Academy of his branch of service will determine his future rank and assignments.
45. At present, approximately 12,144,185 or 36 per cent of the population is illiterate, and most reside in the rural areas. Türkiye Istatistik Yilliḡi 1983 (Turkish Statistical Yearbook) (Ankara: Institute of Statistics, Ankara, 1983), p. 47.
46. Ibid., pp. 37–42.
47. Ibid., pp. 131–2.
48. The five major population centers in Turkey are Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Adana and Bursa, comprising 15.9 per dent (6,427,945) of the total population. For the Army out of 951 in 1984, 268 were from these areas. For the Air Force out of a total of 716 cadets, 498 were from these cities.
49. The provinces that comprise each of the six regions are as follows: Central Anatolia: Afyon, Armasya, Ankara, Bilecck, Burdur, Çankiri, Çorum, Denizli, Eskisehir, Isparta, Kayseri, Kirsehir, Konya, Kütahya, Malatya, Nevsehir, Niḡde, Sivas, Tokat, Usak and Yozgat; Aegean and Marmara Seas: Aydin, Balikesir, Bursa, Çanakkale, Edirne, Izmir, Istanbul, Kirklareli, Kocaeli, Manisa, Mugla, Sakarya and Takirdag; Black Sea: Artvin, Bolu, Giresun, Kastamonu, Ordu, Riza, Samsun, Sinop, Trabazon and Zonguldak; Mediterranean Sea: Adan, Antalya, Gaziantep, Hatay, Içel and K. Maras; Eastern Anatolia: Aḡri, Bingöl, Elaziḡ, Erzincan, Erzurum, Gümüshane, Kars and Tunceli; Southeastern Anatolia: Adiyaman, Bitlis, Diyarbakir, Hakkari, Mardin, Mus, Siirt, Van and Urfa.
50. The principal provinces in Southeastern Anatolia where the 6–8 million Kuridshspeaking Turks reside are Bitlis, Diyarkabkir, Hakkari, Mardin, Mus, Siirt and Van.
51. Approximately 1 per cent of the Turkish population indicated their mother tongue to be Arabic. They primarily reside in these provinces. During the period 1983 the population in Southeastern Anatolia was 2,832, 671 or 7.1 per cent of the total population. Only .006 per cent of the Air Force was recruited from this region.
52. The bulk of the officers attending are captains with a few first lieutenants and some majors. There are two other levels of education for a Turkish officer. The first of these is the Armed Forces College which is a five-months course. Only graduates of War Academies may attend this institution. Finally, an officer may attend the National Security College which lasts for one year. Those selected come from the ranks of colonels and generals and civilians of equivalent status.
53. Those promoted non-Kurmay are usually from the technical branches and can only advance to the rank of major-general or vice-admiral.
54. The curriculum consists of three major areas of study: basic military subjects (personnel, intelligence, operation and logistics) which consist of 15 per cent of the total courses; practical exercises consisting of field and map exercises and war games which make up 55.3 per cent of the curriculum; and general subjects consisting of politics, economics, and foreign languages, law, military geography, etc., making up 29 cent of the course load.
55. From the eastern provinces where the Revolution took root only 10 per cent of the Army cadets are recruited, whereas the percentage of the total population is 14.6 per cent.
56. On several occasions when consensus between political parties has been absent (e.g., 1960s) the existence of a well organized bureaucracy has helped the political system survive conflict and indecisions. liter Turan, ‘Continuity and Change in Turkish Bureaucracy: The Kemalist Period and After’, in Landau (ed.), op. cit., p. 118.
57. The Military in the Political Development of New Nations, op. cit., p. 50.
58. Newspot, 3 January 1986.