The Role of the Vitamin D Endocrine System in Health and Disease

New England Journal of Medicine

Volumn 320, Issue 15, 1989, Pages 980-991

  Reichel, Helmut ^a   Koeffler, H Phillip ^b   Norman, Anthony W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

VITAMIN D;

PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VITAMIN METABOLISM;

EID: 0024510484     PISSN: 00284793     EISSN: 15334406     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198904133201506     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Haussler MR, McCain TA. Basic and clinical concepts related to vitamin D metabolism and action. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 974–83, 1041–50.
2. Norman AW, Roth J, Orci L. The vitamin D endocrine system: steroid metabolism, hormone receptors, and biological response (calcium binding proteins). Endocr Rev 1982; 3: 331–66.
3. DeLuca HF, Schnoes HK. Vitamin D: recent advances. Annu Rev Biochem 1983; 52: 411–39.
4. Holick MF. The cutaneous photosynthesis of previtamin D3: a unique photoendocrine system. J Invest Dermatol 1981; 76: 51–8.
5. Haddad JG Jr. Transport of vitamin D metabolites. Clin Orthop 1979; 142: 249–61.
6. Gibbs PE, Dugaiczyk A. Origin of structural domains of the serum-albumin gene family and a predicted structure of the gene for vitamin D-binding protein. Mol Biol Evol 1987; 4: 364–79.
7. Bell NH, Shaw S, Turner RT. Evidence that 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits the hepatic production of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in man. J Clin Invest 1984; 74: 1540–4.
8. Clements MR, Johnson L, Fraser DR. A new mechanism for induced vitamin D deficiency in calcium deprivation. Nature 1987; 325: 62–5.
9. Henry HL, Norman AW. Vitamin D: metabolism and biological actions. Annu Rev Nutr 1984; 4: 493–520.
10. Fraser DR. Regulation of the metabolism of vitamin D. Physiol Rev 1980; 60: 551–613.
11. Portale AA, Halloran BP, Murphy MM, Morris RC Jr. Oral intake of phosphorus can determine the serum concentration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D by determining its production rate in humans. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 7–12.
12. Bouillon R, Muls E, De Moor P. Influence of thyroid function on the serum concentration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 51: 793–7.
13. Buchanan JR, Santen R, Cauffman S, Cavaliere A, Greer RB, Demers LM. The effect of endogenous estrogen fluctuation on metabolism of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Calcif Tissue Int 1986; 39: 139–44.
14. Aarskog D, Aksnes L, Markestad T, Rodland O. Effect of estrogen on vitamin D metabolism in tall girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983; 57: 1155–8.
15. Krabbe S, Hummer L, Christiansen C Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites and testosterone in male puberty. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62: 503–7.
16. Holick MF, Holick SA, Tavela T, Gallagher B, Schnoes HK, DeLuca HF. Synthesis of [6–3H]-1α-hydroxyvitamin D3 and its metabolism in vivo to [3H]-1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Science 1975; 190: 576–8.
17. Barbour GL, Coburn JW, Slatopolsky E, Norman AW, Horst RL. Hypercalcemia in an anephric patient with sarcoidosis: evidence for extrarenal generation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 440–3.
18. Maesaka JK, Batuman V, Pablo NC, Shakamuri S. Elevated 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels: occurrence with sarcoidosis with end-stage renal disease. Arch Intern Med 1982; 142: 1206–7.
19. Gkonos PJ, London R, Hendler ED. Hypercalcemia and elevated 1,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D levels in a patient with end-stage renal disease and active tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 1683–5.
20. Felsenfeld AJ, Drezner MK, Llach F. Hypercalcemia and elevated calcitriol in a maintenance dialysis patient with tuberculosis. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 1941–5.
21. Gray TK, Lowe W, Lester GE. Vitamin D and pregnancy: the MaternalFetal metabolism of vitamin D. Endocr Rev 1981; 2: 264–74.
22. Shultz TD, Fox J, Heath H III, Kumar R. Do tissues other than the kidney produce 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in vivo? A reexamination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 1746–50.
23. Littledike ET, Horst RL. Metabolism of vitamin D3 in nephrectomized pigs given pharmacological amounts of vitamin D3. Endocrinology 1982; 111: 2008–13.
24. Lambert PW, Stern PH, Avioli RC, et al. Evidence for extrarenal production of 1 α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in man. J Clin Invest 1982; 69: 722–5.
25. Jongen MJ, van der Vijgh WJ, Lips P, Netelenbos JC Measurement of vitamin D metabolites in anephric subjects. Nephron 1984; 36: 230–4.
26. Mason RS, Frankel T, Chan Y-L, Lissner D, Posen S. Vitamin D conversion by sarcoid lymph node homogenate. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100: 59–61.
27. Adams JS, Singer FR, Gacad MA, et al. Isolation and structural identification of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 produced by cultured alveolar macrophages in sarcoidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60: 960–6.
28. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Barbers R, Norman AW. Regulation of 1,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D3 production by cultured alveolar macrophages from normal human donors and from patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 1201–9.
29. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Bishop JE, Norman AW. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 metabolism by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated normal human macrophages. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 1–9.
30. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Norman AW. Synthesis in vitro of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 by interferon-γ-stimulated normal human bone marrow and alveolar macrophages. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 10931–7.
31. Hayes ME, O'Donoghue DJ, Ballardie FW, Mawer EB. Peritonitis induces the synthesis of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in macrophages from CAPD patients. FEBS Lett 1987; 220: 307–10.
32. Turner RT, Howard GA, Puzas JE, Baylink DJ, Knapp DR. Calvarial cells synthesize 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 from 25-hydroxyvitamin D3. Biochemistry 1983; 22: 1073–6.
33. Bikle DD, Nemanic MK, Whitney JO, Elias PW. Neonatal human foreskin keratinocytes produce 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Biochemistry 1986; 25: 1545–8.
34. Russell J, Lettieri D, Sherwood LM. Suppression by 1,25(OH)2D3 of transcription of the pre-proparathyroid hormone gene. Endocrinology 1986; 119: 2864–6.
35. Naveh-Many T, Silver J. Regulation of calcitonin gene transcription by vitamin D metabolites in vivo in the rat. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: 270–3.
36. Rowe DW, Kream BE. Regulation of collagen synthesis in fetal rat calvaria by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. J Biol Chem 1982; 257: 8009–15.
37. Franceschi RT, Linson CJ, Peter TC, Romano PR. Regulation of cellular adhesion and fibronectin synthesis by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 4165–71.
38. Fraser JD, Otawara Y, Price PA. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates the synthesis of matrix γy-carboxyglutamic acid protein by osteosarcoma cells. J Biol Chem 1988; 263: 911–6.
39. Rigby WFC, Denome S, Fanger MW. Regulation of lymphokine production and human T lymphocyte activation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: specific inhibition at the level of messenger RNA. J Clin Invest 1987; 79: 1659–64.
40. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Tobler A, Norman AW. Iα,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits γ-interferon synthesis by normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 3385–9.
41. Tobler A, Miller CW, Norman AW, Koeffler HP. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 modulates the expression of a lymphokine (granulocytemacrophage colony-stimulating factor) posttranscriptionally. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: 1819–23.
42. Simpson RU, Hsu T, Begley DA, Mitchell BS, Alizadeh BN. Transcriptional regulation of the c-myc protooncogene by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cells. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 4104–8.
43. Brelvi ZS, Studzinski GP. Changes in the expression of oncogenes encoding nuclear phosphoproteins but not c-Ha-ras have a relationship to monocytic differentiation of HL 60 cells. J Cell Biol 1986; 102: 2234–43.
44. Scariban E, Mitchell T, Kufe D. Expression of the c-fms proto-oncogene during human monocytic differentiation. Nature 1985; 316: 64–6.
45. McDonnell DP, Mangelsdorf DJ, Pike JW, Haussler MR, O'Malley BW. Molecular cloning of complementary DNA encoding the avian receptor for vitamin D. Science 1987; 235: 1214–7.
46. Theofan G, Nguyen AP, Norman AW. Regulation of calbindin-D28K gene expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is correlated to receptor occupancy. J Biol Chem 1986; 261: 16943–7.
47. Dupret JM, Bran P, Perret C, Lomri N, Thomasset M, Cuisinier-Gleizes P. Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of vitamin D–dependent calcium-binding protein gene expression in the rat duodenum by 1,25dihydroxycholecalciferol. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 16553–7.
48. Wark JD, Tashjian AH Jr. Regulation of prolactin mRNA by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in GH4C1 cells. J Biol Chem 1983; 258: 12118–21.
49. Haussler MR. Vitamin D receptors: nature and function. Annu Rev Nutr 1986; 6: 527–62.
50. Baker AR, McDonnell DP, Hughes M, et al. Cloning and expression of full-length cDNA encoding human vitamin D receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 3294–8.
51. Nemere I, Yoshimoto Y, Norman AW. Calcium transport in perfused duodena from normal chicks: enhancement within 14 minutes of exposure to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Endocrinology 1984; 115: 1476–83.
52. Barsony J, Marx SJ. A very rapid receptor mediated action of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol: increase of intracellular cyclic GMP in human skin fibroblasts. In: Norman AW, Schaefer K, Grigoleit HG, von Herrath D, eds. Vitamin D: molecular, cellular and clinical endocrinology. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988:767–8.
53. Canalis E, McCarthy T, Centrella M. Growth factors and the regulation of bone remodeling. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: 277–81.
54. Raisz LG, Kream BE. Regulation of bone formation. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 29–35, 83–9.
55. Stern PH. The D vitamins and bone. Pharmacol Rev 1980; 32: 47–80.
56. Underwood JL, DeLuca HF. Vitamin D is not directly necessary for bone growth and mineralization. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: E493–E498.
57. Kurihara N, Ishizuka S, Kiyoki M, Haketa Y, Ikeda K, Kumegawa M. Effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on osteoblastic MC3T3–E1 cells. Endocrinology 1986; 118: 940–7.
58. Pan LC, Price PA. The effect of transcriptional inhibitors on the bone γ-carboxyglutamic acid protein response to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in osteosarcoma cells. J Biol Chem 1984; 259: 5844–7.
59. Petkovich PM, Wrana JL, Grigoriadis AE, Heersche JNM, Sodek J. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 increases epidermal growth factor receptors and transforming growth factor β-like activity in a bone-derived cell line. J Biol Chem 1987; 262: 13424–8.
60. Holtrop ME, Cox KA, Clark MB, Holick MF, Anast CS. 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol stimulates osteoclasts in rat bones in the absence of parathyroid hormone. Endocrinology 1981; 108: 2293–301.
61. Roodman GD, Ibbotson KJ, MacDonald BR, Kuehl TJ, Mundy GR. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 causes formation of multinucleated cells with several osteoclast characteristics in cultures of primate marrow. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1985, 82: 8213–7.
62. In vitro formation of osteoclasts from long-term cultures of bone marrow mononuclear phagocytes, E.H., Burger, J.W.M., Van der Meer, J.S., van de Gevels, J.C., Gribnau, C.W., Thesingh, R., van Furths, J Exp Med, (1982), 156, 1604-1614
63. Merke J, Klaus G, Hügel U, Waldherr R, Ritz E. No 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors on osteoclasts of calcium-deficient chicken despite demonstrable receptors on circulating monocytes. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 312–4.
64. Raisz LG, Trummel CL, Holick MF, DeLuca HF. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol: a potent stimulator of bone resorption in tissue culture. Science 1972; 175: 768–9.
65. McSheehy PMJ, Chambers TJ. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates rat osteoblastic cells to release a soluble factor that increases osteoclastic bone resorption. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 425–9.
66. Korkor AB. Reduced binding of [3H]1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the parathyroid glands of patients with renal failure. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1573–7.
67. Agus ZS. Oncogenic hypophosphatemic osteomalacia. Kidney Int 1983; 24: 113–23.
68. Riggs BL, Melton LJ III. Involutional osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1676–86.
69. Gallagher JC, Riggs BL, Eisman J, Hamstra A, Arnaud SB, DeLuca HF. Intestinal calcium absorption and serum vitamin D metabolites in normal subjects and osteoporotic patients: effect of age and dietary calcium. J Clin Invest 1979; 64: 729–36.
70. Falch JA, Oftebro H, Haug E. Early postmenopausal bone loss is not associated with a decrease in circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, or vitamin D-binding protein. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 64: 836–41.
71. Christiansen C, Rodbro P. Serum vitamin D metabolites in younger and elderly postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 1984; 36: 19–24.
72. Gallagher JC, Jerpbak CM, Jee WSS, Johnson KA, DeLuca HF, Riggs BL. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3: short- and long-term effects on bone and calcium metabolism in patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1982; 79: 3325–9.
73. Christiansen C, Christensen MS, Rodbro P, Hagen C, Transbol I. Effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in itself or combined with hormone treatment in preventing postmenopausal osteoporosis. Eur J Clin Invest 1981; 11: 305–9.
74. Brooks MH, Bell NH, Love L, et al. Vitamin-D-dependent rickets type II: resistance of target organs to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. N Engl J Med 1978; 298: 996–9.
75. Eil C, Liberman UA, Rosen JF, Marx SJ. A cellular defect in hereditary vitamin-D-dependent rickets type II: defective nuclear uptake of 1,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D in cultured skin fibroblasts. N Engl J Med 1981; 304: 1588–91.
76. Liberman UA, Eil C, Marx SJ. Resistance to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D: association with heterogeneous defects in cultured skin fibroblasts. J Clin Invest 1981; 71: 192–200.
77. Hirst MA, Hochman HI, Feldman D. Vitamin D resistance and alopecia: a kindred with normal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D binding, but decreased receptor affinity for deoxyribonucleic acid. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60: 490–5.
78. Fraser D, Kooh SW, Kind HP, Holick MF, Tanaka Y, DeLuca HF. Pathogenesis of hereditary vitamin-D-dependent rickets: an inborn error of vitamin D metabolism involving defective conversion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D to 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. N Engl J Med 1973; 289: 817–22.
79. Chan JC, Alon U, Hirschman GM. Renal hypophosphatemic rickets. J Pediatr 1985; 106: 533–44.
80. Drezner MK, Lyles KW, Haussler MR, Harrelson JR. Evaluation of a role for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the pathogenesis and treatment of X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets and osteomalacia. J Clin Invest 1980; 66: 1020–32.
81. Ströder J. Immunity in vitamin D deficient rickets. In: Norman AW, Schaefer K, Grigoleit H-G, von Herrath D, Ritz E, eds. Vitamin D and problems related to uremic bone disease. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1975:675–87.
82. Yetgin S, Ozsoylu S. Myeloid metaplasia in vitamin D deficiency rickets. Scand J Haematol 1982; 28: 180–5.
83. Bar-Shavit Z, Noff D, Edelstein S, Meyer M, Shibolet S, Goldman R. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and the regulation of macrophage function. Calcif Tissue Int 1981; 33: 673–6.
84. Abe E, Miyaura C, Sakagami H, et al. Differentiation of mouse myeloid leukemia cells induced by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 4990–4.
85. Bar-Shavit Z, Teitelbaum SL, Reitsma P, et al. Induction of monocytic differentiation and bone resorption by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 5907–11.
86. McCarthy DM, San Miguel JF, Freake HC, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits proliferation of human promyelocytic leukaemia (HL60) cells and induces monocyte-macrophage differentiation in HL60 and normal human bone manow cells. Leuk Res 1983; 7: 51–5.
87. Mangelsdorf DJ, Koeffler HP, Donaldson CA, Pike JW, Haussler MR. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-induced differentiation in a human promyelocytic leukemia cell line (HL-60): receptor-mediated maturation to macrophage-like cells. J Cell Biol 1984; 98: 391–8.
88. Dodd RC, Cohen MS, Newman SL, Gray TK. Vitamin D metabolites change the phenotype of monoblastic U937 cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 7538–41.
89. Amento EP, Bhalla AK, Kumick JT, et al. 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces maturation of the human monocyte cell line U937, and, in association with a factor from human T lymphocytes, augments production of the monokine mononuclear cell factor. J Clin Invest 1984; 73: 731–9.
90. Munker R, Norman A, Koeffler HP. Vitamin D compounds: effect on clonal proliferation and differentiation of human myeloid cells. J Clin Invest 1986; 78: 424–30.
91. Koeffler HP, Hirji K, Itri L. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3: in vivo and in vitro effects on human preleukemic and leukemic cells. Cancer Treat Rep 1985; 69: 1399–407.
92. Koeffler HP, Amatruda T, Ikekawa N, Kobayashi Y, DeLuca HF. Induction of macrophage differentiation of human normal and leukemic myeloid stem cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its fluorinated analogues. Cancer Res 1984; 44: 5624–8.
93. Honma Y, Hozumi M, Abe E, et al. 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and 1α-hydroxyvitamin D3 prolong survival time of mice inoculated with myeloid leukemia cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 201–4.
94. Ostrem VK, Tanaka Y, Prahl J, DeLuca HF, Ikekawa N. 24- and 26Homo-1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: preferential activity in inducing differentiation of human leukemia cells HL-60 in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 2610–4.
95. Inaba M, Okuno S, Nishizawa Y, et al. Biological activity of fluorinated vitamin D analogs at C-26 and C-27 on human promyelocytic leukemia cells, HL-60. Arch Biochem Biophys 1987; 258: 421–5.
96. Abe J, Morikawa M, Miyamoto K, et al. Synthetic analogues of vitamin D3 with an oxygen atom in the side chain skeleton. FEBS Lett 1987; 226: 58–62.
97. Tsoukas CD, Provvedini DM, Manolagas SC. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3: a novel immunoregulatory hormone. Science 1984; 224: 1438–40.
98. Iho S, Takahashi T, Kura F, Sugiyama H, Hoshino T. The effect of 1,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D3 on in vitro immunoglobulin production in human B cells. J Immunol 1986; 236: 4427–31.
99. Lemire JM, Adams JS, Kermani-Arab V, Bakke achéal, Sakai R, Jordan SC. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses human T helper/inducer lymphocyte activity in vitro. J Immunol 1985; 134: 3032–5.
100. Fujita T, Matsui T, Nakao Y, Watanabe S. T lymphocyte subsets in osteoporosis: effect of 1-alpha hydroxyvitamin D3. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1984; 10: 375–8.
101. Frampton RJ, Omond SA, Eisman JA. Inhibition of human cancer cell growth by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 metabolites. Cancer Res 1983; 43: 4443–7.
102. Dokoh S, Donaldson CA, Haussler MR. Influence of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on cultured osteogenic sarcoma cells: correlation with the 1,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D3 receptor. Cancer Res 1984; 44: 2103–9.
103. Sato T, Takusagawa K, Asoo N, Konno K. Antitumor effect of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Tohuku J Exp Med 1982; 138: 445–6.
104. Eisman JA, Barkla DH, Tutton PJ. Suppression of in vivo growth of human cancer solid tumor xenografts by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Cancer Res 1987; 47: 21–5.
105. Yamaoka K, Marion SL, Gallegos A, Haussler MR. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances the growth of tumors in athymic mice inoculated with receptor rich osteosarcoma cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1986; 139: 1292–8.
106. Cunningham D, Gilchrist NL, Cowan RA, Forrest GJ, McArdle CS, Soukop M. Alfacalcidiol as a modulator of growth of low grade non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. Br Med J 1985; 291: 1153–5.
107. Hosomi J, Hosoi J, Abe E, Suda T, Kuroki T. Regulation of terminal differentiation of cultured mouse epidermal cells by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Endocrinology 1983; 113: 1950–7.
108. Smith EL, Holick MF. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates differentiation and 24-hydroxylase activity in cultured human keratinocytes. In: Norman AW, Schaefer K, Grigoleit H-G, von Herrath D, eds. Vitamin D: a chemical, biochemical and clinical update. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 1985:255–6.
109. Morimoto S, Onishi T, Imanaka S, et al. Topical administration of 1,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D3 for psoriasis: report of five cases. Calcif Tissue Int 1986; 38: 119–22.
110. Morimoto S, Yoshikawa K, Kozuka T, et al. Treatment of psoriasis vulgaris by oral administration of 1α,25-hydroxyvitamin D3 — open-design study. Calcif Tissue Int 1986; 39: 209–12.
111. Holick MF, Smith E, Pincus S. Skin as the site of vitamin D synthesis and target tissue for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: use of calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) for treatment of psoriasis. Arch Dermatol 1987; 123: 1677–83.
112. Cade C, Norman AW. Rapid normalization/stimulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 of insulin secretion and glucose tolerance in the vitamin Ddeficient rat. Endocrinology 1987; 120: 1490–7.
113. Giuliani DL, Boland RL. Effects of vitamin D3 metabolites on calcium fluxes in intact chicken skeletal muscle and myoblasts cultured in vitro. Calcif Tissue Int 1984; 36: 200–5.
114. Weishaar RE, Simpson RU. Vitamin D3 and cardiovascular function in rats. J Clin Invest 1987; 79: 1706–12.
115. Walters MR. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors in the seminiferous tubules of the rat testis increase at puberty. Endocrinology 1984; 114: 2167–74.
116. Endocrine aspects of sarcoidosis, J.L., Winnacker, K.L., Becker, S., Katz, N Engl J Med, (1968), 278, 427-434
117. Bell NH, Gill JR Jr, Bartter FC. On the abnormal calcium absorption in sarcoidosis: evidence for increased sensitivity to vitamin D. Am J Med 1964; 36: 500–13.
118. Stern PH, De Olazabal J, Bell NH. Evidence for abnormal regulation of circulating 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in patients with sarcoidosis and normal calcium metabolism. J Clin Invest 1980; 66: 852–5.
119. Papapoulos SE, Clemens TL, Fraher LJ, Lewin IG, Sandler LM, O'Riordan JL. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol in the pathogenesis of the hypercalcaemia of sarcoidosis. Lancet 1979; 1: 627–30.
120. Bell NH, Stern PH, Pantzer E, Sinha TK, DeLuca HF. Evidence that increased circulating 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D is the probable cause for abnormal calcium metabolism in sarcoidosis. J Clin Invest 1979; 64: 218–25.
121. Insogna KL, Dreyer BE, Mitnick M, Ellison AF, Broadus AE. Enhanced production rate of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in sarcoidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 66: 72–5.
122. Zimmerman J, Holick MF, Silver J. Normocalcemia in a hypoparathyroid patient with sarcoidosis. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98: 338.
123. Adams JS, Gacad MA. Characterization of 1α-hydroxylation of vitamin D3 sterols by cultured alveolar macrophages from patients with sarcoidosis. J Exp Med 1985; 161: 755–65.
124. O'Leary TJ, Jones G, Yip A, et al. The effects of chloroquine on serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and calcium metabolism in sarcoidosis. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 727–30.
125. Epstein S, Stern PH, Bell NH, Dowdeswell I, Turner RT. Evidence for abnormal regulation of circulating 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and normal calcium metabolism. Calcif Tissue Int 1984; 36: 541–4.
126. Hoffman VN, Korzeniowski OM. Leprosy, hypercalcemia, and elevated serum calcitriol levels. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 890–1.
127. Kantarjian HM, Saad MF, Estey EH, Sellin RV, Samaan NA. Hypercalcemia in disseminated candidiasis. Am J Med 1983; 74: 721–4.
128. Kozeny GA, Barbato AL, Bansal VK, Vertuno LL, Hano JE. Hypercalcemia associated with silicone-induced granulomas. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 1103–5.
129. Helikson MA, Havey AD, Zerwekh JE, Breslau NA, Gardner DW. Plasma-cell granuloma producing calcitriol and hypercalcemia. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 379–81.
130. Breslau NA, McGuire JL, Zerwekh JE, Frenkel EP, Pak CY. Hypercalcemia associated with increased serum calcitriol levels in three patients with lymphoma. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100: 1–6.
131. Rosenthal N, Insogna KL, Godsall JW, Smaldone L, Waldron JA, Stewart AF. Elevations in circulating 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in three patients with lymphoma-associated hypercalcemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60: 29–33.
132. Mudde AH, van den Berg H, Boshuis PG, et al. Ectopic production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D by B-cell lymphoma as a cause of hypercalcemia. Cancer 1987; 59: 1543–6.
133. Fetchik DA, Bertolini DR, Sarin PS, Weintraub ST, Mundy GR, Dunn JF. Production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 by human T cell lymphotropic viras-I-transformed lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 1986; 78: 592–6.
134. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Norman AW. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 metabolism by human T-lymphotropic virus-transformed lymphocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 519–26.
135. Dodd RC, Winkler CF, Williams ME, Bunn PA, Gray TK. Calcitriol levels in hypercalcemic patients with adult T-cell lymphoma. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 1971–2.