The Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis — An Update

New England Journal of Medicine

Volumn 314, Issue 8, 1986, Pages 488-500

  Ross, Russell ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; ETIOLOGY; GREAT BLOOD VESSEL; HUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SURVEY;

ANIMAL; ARTERIES; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PLATELETS; CELL COMMUNICATION; CHILD; DIET, ATHEROGENIC; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ENDOTHELIUM; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA, FAMILIAL; MACROPHAGES; MIDDLE AGE; MONOCYTES; MUSCLE, SMOOTH, VASCULAR; PLATELET-DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; RNA, MESSENGER; SUPPORT, NON-U.S. GOV'T; SUPPORT, U.S. GOV'T, P.H.S.;

EID: 0022591979     PISSN: 00284793     EISSN: 15334406     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198602203140806     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Report of the Working Group of Arteriosclerosis of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1981. (DHEW publication no. (NIH) 82–2035).
2. Ross R, Glomset JA. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med 1976; 295: 369–77, 420–5.
3. Ross Atherosclerosis and the arterial smooth muscle cell. Science 1973; 180: 1332–9.
4. Ross R, Harker L. Hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis. Science 1976; 193: 1094–100.
5. Ross R. Atherosclerosis — a problem of the biology of arterial wall cells and their interaction with blood components. Arteriosclerosis 1981; 1: 293–311.
6. Ross Atherosclerosis: a question of endothelial integrity and growth control of smooth muscle. Harvey Lect 1981–1982; 77: 161–82.
7. Benditt EP, Benditt JM. Evidence for a monoclonal origin of human atherosclerotic plaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1973; 70: 1753–6.
8. Geer JC, McGill HC Jr, Strong JP. The fine structure of human atherosclerotic lesions. Am J Pathol 1961; 38: 263–87.
9. Geer JC. Fine structure of human aortic intimal thickening and fatty streaks. Lab Invest 1965; 14: 1764–83.
10. Ghidoni JJ, O'Neal RM. Recent advances in molecular pathology: a review: ultrastructure of human atheroma. Exp Mol Pathol 1967; 7: 378–400.
11. Stary HC. Evolution of atherosclerotic plaques in the coronary arteries of young adults. Arteriosclerosis 1983; 3: 471a. abstract.
12. McGill HC Jr, ed. The geographic pathology of atherosclerosis. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1968:1–193.
13. Leary T. The genesis of atherosclerosis. Arch Pathol 1941; 32: 507–55.
14. Robertson WB, Geer JC, Strong JP, McGill HC Jr. The fate of the fatty streak. Exp Mol Pathol 1963: Suppl 1: 28–39.
15. McGill HC Jr. Persistent problems in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis 1984; 4: 443–51.
16. Ross R, Wight TN, Strandness E, Thiele B. Human atherosclerosis. I. Cell constitution and characteristics of advanced lesions of the superficial femoral artery. Am J Pathol 1984; 114: 79–93.
17. Moss NS, Benditt EP. Human atherosclerotic plaque cells and leiomyoma cells: comparison of in vitro growth characteristics. Am J Pathol 1975; 78: 175–90.
18. Gown AM, Vogel AM, Gordon D, Lu PL. A smooth muscle-specific monoclonal antibody recognizes smooth muscle actin isozymes. J Cell Biol 1985; 100: 807–13.
19. Wissler RW, Vesselinovitch D. Atherosclerosis in nonhuman primates. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 1977; 21: 351–420.
20. Faggiotto A, Ross R, Harker L. Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the nonhuman primate. I. Changes that lead to fatty streak formation. Arteriosclerosis 1984; 4: 323–40.
21. Faggiotto A, Ross R. Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the nonhuman primate. II. Fatty streak conversion to fibrous plaque. Arteriosclerosis 1984; 4: 341–56.
22. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. The low-density lipoprotein pathway and its relation to atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Biochem 1977; 46: 897–930.
23. Goldstein JL, Kita T, Brown MS. Defective lipoprotein receptors and atherosclerosis: lessons from an animal counterpart of familial hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 288–96.
24. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. How LDL receptors influence cholesterol and atherosclerosis. Sci Am 1984; 251(5):58–66.
25. Gerrity RG, Naito HK, Richardson M, Schwartz CJ. Dietary induced atherogenesis in swine: morphology of the intima in prelesion stages. Am J Pathol 1979; 95: 775–92.
26. Gerrity RG. The role of the monocyte in atherogenesis. I. Transition of blood-borne monocytes into foam cells in fatty lesions. Am J Pathol 1981; 103: 181–90.
27. Gerrity The role of the monocyte in atherogenesis. II. Migration of foam cells from atherosclerotic lesions. Am J Pathol 1981; 103: 191–200.
28. Poole JCF, Florey HW. Changes in the endothelium of the aorta and the behaviour of macrophages in experimental atheroma of rabbits. J Pathol Bacteriol 1958; 75: 245–52.
29. Silkworth JB, McLean B, Stehbens WE. The effect of hypercholesterolemia on aortic endothelium studied en face. Atherosclerosis 1975; 22: 335–48.
30. Florentin RA, Nam SC, Daoud AS, et al. Dietary-induced atherosclerosis in miniature swine, I-V. Exp Mol Pathol 1968; 8: 263–301.
31. Massmann J. Mononuclear cell infiltration of the aortic intima in domestic swine. Exp Pathol 1979; 17: 110–2.
32. Rosenfeld ME, Faggiotto A, Ross R. The role of the mononuclear phagocyte in primate and rabbit models of atherosclerosis. Proceedings of the Fourth Leiden Conference on Mononuclear Phagocytes. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985:795–802.
33. Lewis JC, Taylor RG, Jones ND, St. Clair RW, Cornhill JF. Endothelial surface characteristics in pigeon coronary artery atherosclerosis. I. Cellular alterations during the initial stages of dietary cholesterol challenge. Lab Invest 1982; 46: 123–38.
34. Jerome WG, Lewis JC. Early atherogenesis in White Carneau pigeons. I. Leukocyte margination and endothelial alterations at the celiac bifurcation. Am J Pathol 1984; 116: 56–68.
35. Joris I, Zand T, Nunnari JJ, Krolikowski FJ, Majno G. Studies on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. I. Adhesion and emigration of mononuclear cells in the aorta of hypercholesterolemic rats. Am J Pathol 1983; 113: 341–58.
36. Schaub RG, Rawlings CA, Keith JC Jr. Platelet adhesion and myointimal proliferation in canine pulmonary arteries. Am J Pathol 1981; 104: 13–22.
37. Schaub RG, Rawlings CA. Pulmonary vascular response during phases of canine heartworm disease; scanning electron microscopic study. Am J Vet Res 1980; 41: 1082–9.
38. Schwartz SM, Benditt EP. Clustering of replicating cells in aortic endothelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1976; 73: 651–3.
39. Schwartz Aortic endothelial cell replication. I. Effects of age and hypertension in the rat. Circ Res 1977; 41: 248–55.
40. Steinberg D. Lipoproteins and atherosclerosis: a look back and a look ahead. Arteriosclerosis 1983; 3: 283–301.
41. Moneada S, Herman AG, Higgs EA, Vane JR. Differential formation of prostacyclin (PGX or PGI2) by layers of the arterial wall: an explanation for the anti-thrombotic properties of vascular endothelium. Thromb Res 1977; 11: 323–44.
42. Furchgott RF. Role of endothelium in responses of vascular smooth muscle. Circ Res 1983; 53: 557–73.
43. Gajdusek CM, DiCorleto P, Ross R, Schwartz SM. An endothelial cell-derived growth factor. J Cell Biol 1980; 85: 467–72.
44. DiCorleto PE, Gajdusek CM, Schwartz SM, Ross R. Biochemical properties of the endothelium-derived growth factor: comparison to other growth factors. J Cell Physiol 1983; 114: 339–45.
45. DiCorleto PE, Bowen-Pope DF. Cultured endothelial cells produce a plate-let-derived growth factor-like protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 1919–23.
46. Castellot JJ Jr, Addonizio ML, Rosenberg R, Karnovsky MJ. Cultured endothelial cells produce a heparinlike inhibitor of smooth muscle cell growth. J Cell Biol 1981; 90: 372–9.
47. Castellot JJ Jr, Favreau LV, Karnovsky MJ, Rosenberg RD. Inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell growth by endothelial cell-derived heparin: possible role of a platelet endoglycosidase. J Biol Chem 1982; 257: 11256–60.
48. Fox PL, DiCorleto PE. Regulation of a production of a platelet-derived growth factor-like protein by cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells. J Cell Physiol 1984; 121: 298–308.
49. Barrett TB, Gajdusek CM, Schwartz SM, McDougall JK, Benditt EP. Expression of the sis gene by endothelial cells in culture and in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 6772–4.
50. Gimbrone MA Jr. Culture of vascular endothelium. Prog Hemost Thromb 1976; 3: 1–28.
51. Heimark RL, Schwartz SM. The role of membrane–membrane interactions in the regulation of endothelial cell growth. J Cell Biol 1985; 100: 1934–40.
52. Leiberman MA, Glaser L. Density-dependent regulation of cell growth: an example of a cell–cell recognition phenomenon. J Membr Biol 1981; 63: 1–11.
53. Vlodavsky I, Johnson LK, Gospodarowicz D. Appearance in confluent vascular endothelial cell monolayers of a specific cell surface protein (CSP-60) not detected in actively growing endothelial cells or in cell types growing in multiple layers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1979; 76: 2306–10.
54. Gerrity RG, Goss JA, Soby L. Control of monocyte recruitment by chemotactic factor(s) in lesion-prone areas of swine aorta. Arteriosclerosis 1985; 5: 55–66.
55. Burke JM, Ross R. Synthesis of connective tissue macromolecules by smooth muscle. Int Rev Connect Tissue Res 1979; 8: 119–57.
56. Chait A, Ross R, Albers JJ, Bierman EL. Platelet-derived growth factor stimulates activity of low density lipoprotein receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1980; 77: 4084–8.
57. Witte LD, Cornicelli JA. Platelet-derived growth factor stimulates low density lipoprotein receptor activity in cultured human fibroblasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1980; 77: 5962–6.
58. Bowen-Pope DF, Seifert RA, Ross R. The platelet-derived growth factor receptor. In: Boynton AL, Leffert HL, eds. Control of animal cell proliferation: recent advances. Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1985:281–312.
59. Clowes AW, Schwartz SM. Significance of quiescent smooth muscle migration in the injured rat carotid artery. Circ Res 1985; 56: 139–45.
60. Schwartz SM, Reidy MR, Clowes A. Kinetics of atherosclerosis, a stem cell model. Ann NY Acad Sci 1985; 454: 292–304.
61. Chamley-Campbell JH, Campbell GR, Ross R. Phenotype-dependent response of cultured aortic smooth muscle to serum mitogens. J Cell Biol 1981; 89: 379–83.
62. Thyberg J, Palmberg L, Nilsson J, Ksiazek T, Sjölund M. Phenotype modulation in primary cultures of arterial smooth muscle cells: on the role of platelet-derived growth factor. Differentiation 1983; 25: 156–67.
63. Fritz KE, Jarmolych J, Daoud AS. Association of DNA synthesis and apparent dedifferentiation of aortic smooth muscle cells in vitro. Exp Mol Pathol 1970; 12: 354–62.
64. Seifert RA, Schwartz SM, Bowen-Pope DF. Developmentally regulated production of platelet-derived growth factor-like molecules. Nature 1984; 311: 669–71.
65. Walker LN, Bowen-Pope DF, Ross R, Reidy MA. intimal vascular smooth muscle cells secrete PDGF-like activity. Fed Proc 1985; 44: 737. abstract.
66. Harker LA, Slichter SJ, Scott CR, Ross R. Homocystinemia: vascular injury and arterial thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1974; 291: 537–43.
67. Harker LA, Ross R, Slichter SJ, Scott CR. Homocystine-induced arteriosclerosis: the role of endothelial cell injury and platelet response in its genesis. J Clin Invest 1976; 58: 731–41.
68. Moore S. Thromboatherosclerosis in normolipemic rabbits: a result of continued endothelial damage. Lab Invest 1973; 29: 478–87.
69. Moore S, Friedman RJ, Singal DP, Gauldie J, Blajchman M, Roberts RS. Inhibition of injury induced thromboatherosclerotic lesions by antiplatelet serum in rabbits. Thromb Haemost 1976; 35: 70–81.
70. Stemerman MB, Ross R. Experimental arteriosclerosis. I. Fibrous plaque formation in primates, an electron microscope study. J Exp Med 1972; 136: 769–89.
71. Brown BG, Cukingnan R, Petersen RB, Pierce CD, Bolson EL, Dodge HT. Perianastomotic arteriosclerosis in grafted human coronary arteries: prevention with platelet-inhibiting therapy. Am J Cardiol 1982; 49: 968. abstract.
72. Chesebro JH, Fuster V, Elveback LR, et al. Effect of dipyridamole and aspirin on late vein-graft patency after coronary bypass operations. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 209–14.
73. Baumgartner HR. Platelet interaction with vascular structures. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 1972: Suppl 51: 161–76.
74. Oka Y, Orth DN. Human plasma epidermal growth factor/beta-urogastrone is associated with blood platelets. J Clin Invest 1983; 72: 249–59.
75. Bowen-Pope DF, Ross R. Is epidermal growth factor present in human blood? Interference with the radioreceptor assay for epidermal growth factor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1983; 114: 1036–41.
76. Ross R, Glomset J, Kariya B, Harker L. A platelet-dependent serum factor that stimulates the proliferation of arterial smooth muscle cells in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1974; 71: 1207–10.
77. Kohler N, Lipton A. Platelets as a source of fibroblast growth-promoting activity. Exp Cell Res 1974; 87: 297–301.
78. Childs CB, Proper JA, Tucker RF, Moses HL. Serum contains a platelet-derived transforming growth factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1982; 79: 5312–6.
79. Assoian RK, Komoriya A, Meyers CA, Miller DM, Sporn MB. Transforming growth factor-beta in human platelets: identification of a major storage site, purification, and characterization. J Biol Chem 1983; 258: 7155–60.
80. Tucker RF, Shipley GD, Moses HL, Holley RW. Growth inhibitor from BSC-1 cells closely related to platelet type β transforming growth factor. Science 1984; 226: 705–7.
81. Grotendorst GR, Chang T, Seppä HEM, Kleinman HK, Martin GR. Platelet-derived growth factor is a chemoattractant for vascular smooth muscle cells. J Cell Physiol 1982; 113: 261–6.
82. Deuel TF, Senior RM, Chang D, Griffin GL, Heinrikson RL, Kaiser ET. Platelet factor 4 is chemotactic for neutrophils and monocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 4584–7.
83. Senior RM, Huang JS, Griffin GL, Deuel TF. Dissociation of the chemotactic and mitogenic activities of platelet-derived growth factor by human neutrophil elastase. J Cell Biol 1985; 100: 351–6.
84. Friedman RJ, Stemerman MB, Wenz B, et al. The effect of thrombocytopenia on experimental arteriosclerotic lesion formation in rabbits: smooth muscle cell proliferation and re-endothelialization. J Clin Invest 1977; 60: 1191–201.
85. Harker LA, Harlan JM, Ross R. Effect of sulfinpyrazone on homocysteine-induced endothelial injury and arteriosclerosis in baboons. Circ Res 1983; 53: 731–9.
86. Van Furth R. Current view on the mononuclear phagocyte system. Inununobiology 1982; 161: 178–85.
87. Nathan CF, Murray HW, Cohn ZA. Current concepts: the macrophage as an effector cell. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 622–6.
88. DiCorleto PE, de la Motte CA. Characterization of the adhesion of the human monocytic cell line U-937 to cultured endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 1985; 75: 1153–61.
89. Bevilacqua MP, Pober JS, Cotran RS, Gimbrone MA Jr. Interleukin 1 (IL1) acts upon vascular endothelium to stimulate procoagulant activity and leukocyte adhesion. J Cell Biochem 1985: Suppl 9A: 148. abstract.
90. Martin TR, Altman LC, Albert RK, Henderson WR. Leukotriene B4 production by human alveolar macrophage: a potential mechanism for amplifying inflammation in the lung. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 129: 106–11.
91. Mazzone T, Jensen M, Chait A. Human arterial wall cells secrete factors that are chemotactic for monocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 5094–7.
92. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. Lipoprotein metabolism in the macrophage: implications for cholesterol deposition in atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Bio-chem 1983; 52: 223–61.
93. Leibovich SJ, Ross R. The role of the macrophage in wound repair: a study with hydrocortisone and antimacrophage serum. Am J Pathol 1975; 78: 71–100.
94. Leibovich A macrophage-dependent factor that stimulates the proliferation of fibroblasts in vitro. Am J Pathol 1976; 84: 501–13.
95. Martin BM, Gimbrone MA Jr, Unanue ER, Cotran RS. Stimulation of nonlymphoid mesenchymal cell proliferation by a macrophage-derived growth factor. J Immunol 1981; 126: 1510–5.
96. Leslie CC, Musson RA, Henson PM. Production of growth factor activity for fibroblasts by human monocyte-derived macrophages. J Leuk Biol 1984; 36: 143–59.
97. Dohlman JG, Payan DG, Goetzl EJ. Generation of a unique fibroblast-activating factor by human monocytes. Immunology 1984; 52: 577–84.
98. Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Hunninghake GW, Crystal RG. Human alveolar macrophage growth factor for fibroblasts: regulation and partial characterization. J Clin Invest 1982; 70: 806–22.
99. Glenn KC, Ross R. Human monocyte-derived growth factor(s) for mesenchymal cells: activation of secretion by endotoxin and concanavalin A. Cell 1981; 25: 603–15.
100. Shimokado K, Raines EW, Madtes DK, Barrett TB, Benditt EP, Ross R. A significant part of macrophage-derived growth factor consists of at least two forms of PDGF. Cell (in press).
101. Baird A, Mormede P, Bohlen P. Immunoreactive fibroblast growth factor in cells of peritoneal exudate suggests its identity with macrophage-derived growth factor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985; 126: 358–64.
102. Heldin C-H, Westermark B, Wasteson Â. Platelet-derived growth factor: purification and partial characterization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1979; 76: 3722–6.
103. Deuel TF, Huang JS, Proffitt RT, Baenziger JU, Chang D, Kennedy BB. Human platelet-derived growth factor: purification and resolution into two active protein fractions. J Biol Chem 1981; 256: 8896–9.
104. Antoniades HN. Human platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): purification of PDGF-I and PDGF-II and separation of their reduced subunits. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 7314–7.
105. Raines EW, Ross R. Platelet-derived growth factor. I. High yield purification and evidence for multiple forms. J Biol Chem 1982; 257: 5154–60.
106. Johnsson A, Heldin C-H, Wasteson Â, et al. The c-sis gene encodes a precursor of the β chain of platelet-derived growth factor. EMBO J 1984; 3: 921–8.
107. Gerrard JM, Phillips DR, Rao GHR, et al. Biochemical studies of two patients with the gray platelet syndrome: selective deficiency of platelet alpha granules. J Clin Invest 1980; 66: 102–9.
108. Kaplan DR, Chao FC, Stiles CD, Antoniades HN, Scher CD. Platelet α granules contain a growth factor for fibroblasts. Blood 1979; 53: 1043–52.
109. Kaplan KL, Broekman MJ, Chernoff A, Lesznik GR, Drillings M. Platelet α-granule proteins: studies on release and subcellular localization. Blood 1979; 53: 604–18.
110. Heldin C-H, Westermark B, Wasteson à. Specific receptors for platelet-derived growth factor on cells derived from connective tissue and glia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 3664–8.
111. Bowen-Pope DF, Ross R. Platelet-derived growth factor. II. Specific binding to cultured cells. J Biol Chem 1982; 257: 5161–71.
112. Huang JS, Huang SS, Kennedy B, Deuel TF. Platelet-derived growth factor: specific binding to target cells. J Biol Chem 1982; 257: 8130–6.
113. Seppä H, Grotendorst G, Seppä S, Schiffmann E, Martin GR. Platelet-derived growth factor is chemotactic for fibroblasts. J Cell Biol 1982; 92: 584–8.
114. Deuel TF, Senior RM, Huang JS, Griffin GL. Chemotaxis of monocytes and neutrophils to platelet-derived growth factor. J Clin Invest 1982; 69: 1046–9.
115. Pike LJ, Bowen-Pope DF, Ross R, Krebs EG. Characterization of platelet-derived growth factor-stimulated phosphorylation in cell membranes. J Biol Chem 1983; 258: 9383–90.
116. Heldin C-H, Rönnstrand L. Characterization of the receptor for platelet-derived growth factor on human fibroblasts: demonstration of an intimate relationship with a 185,000-dalton substrate for the platelet-derived growth factor-stimulated kinase. J Biol Chem 1983; 258: 10054–61.
117. Nishimura J, Huang JS, Deuel TF. Platelet-derived growth factor stimulates tyrosine-specific protein kinase activity in Swiss mouse 3T3 cell membranes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1982; 79: 4303–7.
118. Cooper JA, Bowen-Pope DF, Raines E, Ross R, Hunter T. Similar effects of platelet-derived growth factor and epidermal growth factor on phosphorylation of tyrosine in cellular proteins. Cell 1982; 31: 263–73.
119. Habenicht AJR, Glomset JA, King WC, Nist C, Mitchell CD, Ross R. Early changes in phosphatidylinositol and arachidonic acid metabolism in quiescent Swiss 3T3 cells stimulated to divide by platelet-derived growth factor. J Biol Chem 1981; 256: 12329–35.
120. Shier WT, Durkin JP. Role of stimulation of arachidonic acid release in the proliferative response of 3T3 mouse fibroblasts to platelet-derived growth factor. J Cell Physiol 1982; 112: 171–81.
121. Habenicht AJR, Goerig M, Grulich J, et al. Human platelet-derived growth factor stimulates prostaglandin synthesis by activation and by rapid de novo synthesis of cyclooxygenase. J Clin Invest 1985; 75: 1381–7.
122. Nishizuka Y. The role of protein kinase C in cell surface signal transduction and tumour promotion. Nature 1984; 308: 693–8.
123. Berridge JL, Irvine RF. Inositol trisphosphate, a novel second messenger in cellular signal transduction. Nature 1984; 312: 315–21.
124. Bowen-Pope DF, Malpass TW, Foster DM, Ross R. Platelet-derived growth factor in vivo: levels, activity, and rate of clearance. Blood 1984; 64: 458–69.
125. Raines EW, Bowen-Pope DF, Ross R. Plasma binding proteins for platelet-derived growth factor that inhibit its binding to cell-surface receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 3424–8.
126. Huang JS, Huang SS, Deuel TF. Specific covalent binding of platelet-derived growth factor to human plasma α2-macroglobulin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 342–6.
127. Waterfield MD, Scrace GT, Whittle N, et al. Platelet-derived growth factor is structurally related to the putative transforming protein p28sis of simian sarcoma virus. Nature 1983; 304: 35–9.
128. Doolittle RF, Hunkapiller MW, Hood LE, et al. Simian sarcoma virus onc gene, v-sis, is derived from the gene (or genes) encoding a platelet-derived growth factor. Science 1983; 221: 275–7.
129. Devare SG, Shatzman A, Robbins KC, Rosenberg M, Aaronson SA. Expression of the PDGF-related transforming protein of simian sarcoma virus in E. coli. Cell 1984; 36: 43–9.
130. Heldin C-H, Westermark B, Wasteson Â. Chemical and biological properties of a growth factor from human-cultured osteosarcoma cells: resemblance with platelet-derived growth factor. J Cell Physiol 1980; 105: 235–46.
131. Deuel TF, Huang JS, Huang SS, Stroobant P, Waterfield MD. Expression of a platelet-derived growth factor-like protein in simian sarcoma virus transformed cells. Science 1983; 221: 1348–50.
132. Bowen-Pope DF, Vogel A, Ross R. Production of platelet-derived growth factor-like molecules and reduced expression of platelet-derived growth factor receptors accompany transformation by a wide spectrum of agents. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1984; 81: 2396–400.
133. Inkeles S, Eisenberg D. Hyperlipidemia and coronary atherosclerosis: a review. Medicine (Baltimore) 1981; 60: 110–23.
134. Lipid Research Clinics Program. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial results. I. Reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease. JAMA 1984; 251: 351–64.
135. Lipid Research Clinics Program The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial results. II. The relationship of reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease to cholesterol lowering. JAMA 1984; 251: 365–74.
136. Jackson RL, Gotto AM Jr. Hypothesis concerning membrane structure, cholesterol, and atherosclerosis. In: Paoletti R, Gotto AM Jr, eds. Atherosclerosis reviews. Vol. 1. New York: Raven Press, 1976:1–21.
137. Cathcart MK, Morel DW, Chisolm GM III. Monocytes and neutrophils oxidize low-density lipoprotein making it cytotoxic. J Leuk Biol 1985; 38: 341–50.
138. Reidy MA, Schwartz SM. Recent advances in molecular pathology: arterial endothelium — assessment of in vivo injury. Exp Mol Pathol 1984; 41: 419–34.
139. Reidy Endothelial injury and regeneration. IV. Endotoxin: a nondenuding injury to aortic endothelium. Lab Invest 1983; 48: 25–34.
140. Reidy Endothelial regeneration. III. Time course of intimal changes after small defined injury to rat aortic endothelium. Lab Invest 1981; 44: 301–8.
141. Bjôrkerud S, Bondjers G. Endothelial integrity and viability in the aorta of the normal rabbit and rat as evaluated with dye exclusion tests and interference contrast microscopy. Atherosclerosis 1972; 15: 285–300.
142. Hansson GK, Bondjers G, Bylock A, Hjalmarsson L. Ultrastructural studies on the localization of IgG in the aortic endothelium and subendothelial intima of atherosclerotic and nonatherosclerotic rabbits. Exp Mol Pathol 1980; 33: 302–15.
143. Reidy MA, Harker LA, Schwartz SM. Analysis of minimal endothelial denudation. Fed Proc 1983; 42: 771. abstract.
144. Reidy MA, Silver M. Endothelial regeneration. VII. Lack of intimal proliferation after defined injury to rat aorta. Am J Pathol 1985; 118: 173–7.
145. Neufeld HN, Goldbourt U. Coronary heart disease: genetic aspects. Circulation 1983; 67: 943–54.