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Three readings that emphasize the centrality of symbolic meaning to the structure of social organization are Mircea Eliades Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return (Harper & Row, 1959); George Herbert Mead's Mind, Self and Society (University of Chicago Press, 1934); and Peter Berger and Thomas Luckman's The Social Construction of Reality (Doubleday and Company, 1967). Although these three readings do not specifically address the concept of organizational culture, they give an important background for studying culture and symbolic meaning in organizations.
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The importance of values and beliefs in the organizational literature has long had a normative, humanistic flavor that is best represented by the classics: Elton Meads The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (Macmillan, 1933); Douglas McGregor's The Human Side of Management (McGraw-Hill, 1960); Rensis Likert's New Patterns of Management (McGraw-Hill, 1961); and Chris Argyris's Integrating the Individual and the Organization (John Wiley and Sons, 1964). Many of the ideas now being developed in the literature on organizational culture first appeared in these books.
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Corporate culture has recently established a place in the popular literature that none of these classics attained. William Ouchi's Theory Z (Addison-Wesley, 1981); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman' s In Search of Excellence (Harper & Row, 1982); Richard Pascale and Anthony Athos's The Art o f Japanese Management (Simon and Schuster, 1981); Terrence Deal and Alan Kennedy's Corporate Cultures (Addison-Wesley, 1982); and Rosabeth Kanter' s The Change Masters (Simon & Schuster, 1983) all brought the topic to public attention and made an important contribution to the academic world as well.
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Organizational Dynamics (Autumn 1983) and the Administrative Science Quarterly (September 1983) have each published special issues on organizational culture. Several other articles, especially Alan Wilkins and William Ouchi's “Efficient Cultures: Exploring the Relationship Between Culture and Organizational Performance” (Administrative Science Quarterly, September 1983); Daniel Carroll's review, “hA Disappointing Search for Excellence” (Harvard Business Review, November 1983); and Wickham Skinners “Big Hat, No Cattle: Managing Human Resources” (Harvard Business Review, September 1981) also help to set a context in which this article may be viewed.
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The Survey of Organizations was first developed in the middle-to-late 1960s. Since that time it has been revised and updated by David Bowers and his associates. The best description of the survey can be found in James Taylor and David Bowers' The Survey of Organizations (Institute for Social Research, 1972).
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The conceptualization of organizational effectiveness used in this article drew on Stanley Seashores article titled, “A Framework for an Integrated Model of Organizational Effectiveness,” which appears in Kim Cameron and David Whetten's Organizational Effectiveness: A Comparison of Multiple Models (Academic Press, 1983); Stanley Seashore and Ephraim Yuchtman's “Factorial Analysis of Organizational Performance” (Administrative Science Quarterly, December 1967); Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn's The Social Psychology of Organizations (John Wiley and Sons, 1978); and Gerald H. B. Ross's unpublished manuscript “Constituents, Environments and Organizational Effectiveness” (Institute for Social Research, 1980).
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Finally, the research presented in this article was drawn from Daniel Denison's dissertation, The Climate, Culture and Effectiveness of Work Organizations: A Study of Organizational Behavior and Financial Performance (University of Michigan, 1982).
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