Regulation of the immune system by sex steroids

Endocrine Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 1984, Pages 435-455

  Grossman, Charles J ^a,b,c  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b XAVIER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN; ESTROGEN; PROGESTERONE; SEX HORMONE;

ADRENALECTOMY; ANIMAL; ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BURSA FABRICII; CASTRATION; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; FEMALE; GONAD; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; IMMUNITY; IMMUNOLOGY; LYMPHOCYTE; MALE; PHYSIOLOGY; PREGNANCY; REVIEW; THYMUS;

ADRENALECTOMY; ANDROGENS; ANIMAL; ANTIBODY FORMATION; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; BURSA OF FABRICIUS; CASTRATION; ESTROGENS; FEMALE; GONADS; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; IMMUNITY; IMMUNITY, CELLULAR; LYMPHOCYTES; MALE; PREGNANCY; PROGESTERONE; SEX HORMONES; SUPPORT, U.S. GOV'T, NON-P.H.S.; THYMUS GLAND;

EID: 0021445154     PISSN: 0163769X     EISSN: 0163769X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/edrv-5-3-435     Document Type: Article

References (235)

1. Bowry TR 1977 Immunology Simplified. Oxford Univ. Press Ibadan, Delhi, p.11
2. Hood LE, Weissman IL, Wood WB 1978 Immunology. BenjaminJ Cummings, Menlo Park, CA
3. Barrett JT 1980 Basic Immunology and Its Medical Application (2nd ed). C.V. Mosby, St. Louis, MO
4. Kimball JW 1983 Introduction to Immunology. MacMillan, New York
5. Barrett JT 1978 Textbook of Immunology (3rd ed) C.V. Mosby, St. Louis, MO
6. Clark WR 1983 The Experimental Foundations of Modern Immunology (2nd ed) John Wiley & Sons, New York
7. Terres G, Morrison SL, Habicht GS 1968 A quantitative difference in the immune response between male and female mice. Pro Soc Exp Biol Med 27:664
8. Batchelor JR, Chapman BA 1965 The influence of sex upon the antibody response to an incompatible tumor. Immunology 9:553
9. Gross L 1941 Influence of sex on the evolution of a transplantable mouse sarcoma. Pro Soc Exp Biol Med 47:273
10. Gross L 1942 Influence of sex on resistance to intraperitoneal inoculation of sarcoma in mice. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 49:67
11. Raveche E, Klassen LW, Steinberg AD 1976 Sex differences in formation of anti-T-cell antibodies. Nature 263:415
12. Roubinian JR, Papoian R, Talal N 1977 Androgenic hormones modulate auto-antibody responses and improve survival in murine lupus. J Clin Invest 59:1066
13. Roubinian JR, Talal N, Greenspan JS, Goodman JR, Siiteri PK Effects of castration and sex hormone treatment on survival, anti-nucleic acid antibodies, and glomerulonephritis in NZBJ NZW Fi mice. J Exp Med 147:1568
14. Roubinian JR, Talal N, Greenspan JS, Goodman JR, Siiteri PK Delayed androgen treatment prolongs survival in murine lupus. J Clin Invest 63:902
15. Roubinian J, Talal N, Siiteri PK, Sadakian JA 1979 Sex hormone modulation of autoimmunity in NZBJ NZW mice. Arth Rheum 22:1162
16. Batchelor JR 1968 Hormonal control of antibody formation. In: Cinader B (ed) Regulation of the antibody response. Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, p 276
17. Eidinger D, Garrett TJ 1972 Studies of the regulatory effects of the sex hormones on antibody formation and stem cell differentiation. J Exp Med 136:1098
18. Tartakovsky B, DeBaetselier P, Feldman M, Segal S 1981 Sexassociated differences in the immune response against fetal major histocompatibility antigens. Transplantation 32:395
19. Butterworth MB, McClellan B, Alansmith M 1967 Influence of sex on immunoglobulin levels. Nature (Lond) 214:1224
20. Rhodes K, Scott A, Markham RL, Monk-Jones ME 1969 Immunological sex differences. A study of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, their relatives and controls. Ann Rheum Dis 28:104
21. Rowley MJ, Mackay IR 1969 Measurement of antibody-producing capacity in man. Clin Exp Immunol 5:407
22. Ainbender E, Weisinger R, Hevizy M, Hodes HL 1968 Difference in immunoglobulin class of polio antibody in the serum of men and women. J Immunol 101:1
23. Jerne NK, Nordin AA, Henry C 1963 The agar plaque technique for recognizing antibody producing cells. Cell-bound antibodies. Wistar, Philadelphia, p 109.
24. Blazkovec AA, Orsini MW, Maginn PC 1973 Sexual dimorphism in the primary immune response of the Syrian hamster. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 44:274
25. Orsini MW, Blazkovec AA 1974 Sexual dimorphism in the secondary immune response of the syrian hamster. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 46:858
26. Graff RJ, Hildemann WH, Snell GD 1966 Histocompatibility genes of mice. Transplantation 4:425
27. Graff RJ, Lappe MA, Snell GD 1969 The influence of the gonads and adrenal glands on the immune response to skin grafts. Transplantation 7:105
28. Grossman CJ, Sholiton LJ, Roselle G 1982 Estradiol regulation of thymic lymphocyte function in the rat: Mediation by serum thymic factors. J Steroid Biochem 16:683
29. Shaikh AA, Shaikh SA 1975 Adrenal and ovarian steroid secretion in the rat estrus cycle temporally related to gonadotropins and steroid levels found in peripheral plasma. Endocrinology 96:37
30. Crabtree GR, Gillis S, Smith KA, Munck A 1979 Glucocorticoids and immune responses. Arthritis Rheum 22:1246
31. Hill RT 1937 Ovaries secrete male hormone: restoration of castrate type of seminal vessicle and prostate glands to normal by grafts of ovaries in mice. Endocrinology 21:495
32. Calzolari A 1898 Rescherches experimentales sur un rapport probable entre la function du thymus et celle des testicules. Arch Ital Biol 30:71
33. Chiodi H 1940 The relationship between the thymus and the sexual organs. Endocrinology 26:107
34. Castro JE 1974 Orichidectomy and the immune response I. Effect of orchidectomy on lymphoid tissue of mice. Proc R Soc (Lond) 185:425
35. Chiodi H 1976 Thymus hypertrophy induced by castration in old male rats and mice. Fed Proc 35:277 (abstract 395)
36. Grossman CJ, Sholiton LJ, Blaha GC, Nathan P 1979 Rat thymic estrogen receptor II. Physiological properties. J Steroid Biochem 11:1241
37. Castro JE 1977 Immunological and anti-tumor effects of orchidectomy. In: Boettcher, B (ed) Immunological influences on Human Fertility. Proceedings of Workshop on Fertility in Human Reproduction. Aca, NY, p 295
38. Streng CB, Nathan P 1973 The immune response in steroid deficient mice. Immunology 24:559
39. Evans HM, Simpson ME 1934 Reduction of the thymus by gonadotropic hormone. Anat Rec 60:423
40. Castro JE 1974 Orchidectomy and the immune response II. Response of orchidectomized mice to antigens. Proc R Soc (Lond) 185:437
41. Castro JE 1975 Immunological effects of orchidectomy. Br J Urol 47:89
42. Grossman CJ, Roselle GA 1983 The interrelationship of the HPGthymic axis and immune system regulation. J Steroid Biochem 19 (1B):461
43. Grossman CJ, Sholiton LJ, Roselle GA 1983 Dihydrotestosterone regulation of thymocyte function in the rat: Mediation by serum factors. J Steroid Biochem 19:1459
44. Yohn DS 1973 Sex related resistance in hamsters to adenovirus oncogenesis. Prog Exp Tumor Res 18:138
45. Fong CKY, Ledinko N 1970 Enhancement by estrogens of adenovirus or spontaneous transformation of hamster cells in culture. Cancer Res 30:889
46. Visilakis GJ, Kunz HW, Gill III TJ 1974 The effect of gonadectomy on antibody production by inbred rats. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 47:730
47. Kenny JF, Gray JA 1971 Sex differences in immunological response. Studies of antibody production by individual spleen cells after stimulus with Escherichia coli antigen. Pediatr Res 5:246
48. Stern K, Davidsohn I 1955 Effect of estrogen and cortisone on immune hemoantibodies in mice of inbred strains. J Immunol 74:479
49. Von Haam E, Rosenfeld I 1942 The effect of estrone on antibody production. J Immunol 43:109
50. Wira CR, Sandoe CP 1980 Hormonal regulation of immunoglobulins: Influence of estradiol on immunoglobulins A and G in the rat uterus. Endocrinology 106:1020
51. Gill III TJ, Kunz HW 1971 Genetic and cellular factors in the immune response. II Evidence for polygenic control of the antibody response from further breeding studies and from pedigree analysis. J Immunol 106:980
52. Paavonen T, Anderson LC, Adlercreutz H 1981 Sex hormone regulation of in vitro immune response. Estradiol enhances human B cell maturation via inhibition of suppressor T cells in pokeweed mitogen-stimulated cultures. J Exp Med 154:1935
53. Maor D, Englander T, Eylan E, Alexander P 1974 Participation of hormone in the early stages of the immune response. Acta Endocrinol 75:205
54. Feigen GA, Fraser RC, Peterson NS, Dandlikes WB 1978 Sex hormones and the immune response. I Host factors in the production of penicillin-specific antibodies in the female guinea pig. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 57:385
55. Feigen GA, Fraser RC, Peterson NS 1978 Sex hormones and the immune response. II Perturbation of antibody production by estradiol 17J 3. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 57:488
56. Kalland T 1980 Decreased and disproportionate T cell population in adult mice after neonatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol. Cell Immunol 51:55
57. Kalland T 1980 Alterations of antibody response in female mice after neontal exposure to diethylstilbestrol. J Immunol 124:194
58. Kappas A, Jones HEH, Roitt IM 1963 Effects of sex hormones on immunological phenomena. Nature 198:902
59. Lurie MB, Harris TN, Abramson S, Allison JM 1949 Constitutional factors in resistance to infection. II The effect of estrogen on tuberculin skin sensitivity and on the allergy of the internal tissues. Am Rev Tuberculosis 59:186
60. Waltman SR, Burde RM, Berrios J 1971 Prevention of corneal homograft rejection by estrogens. Transplantation 11:194
61. Kalland T, Forsberg J-G 1978 Delayed hypersensitivity response to oxazolone in neonatally estrogenized mice. Cancer Lett 4:141
62. Ablin RJ, Bhatti RA, Guianan PD, Khin W 1979 Modulatory effects of oestrogen on immunological responsiveness. II Suppression of tumor-associated immunity in patients with prostatic cancer. Clin Exp Immunol 38:83
63. Ablin RJ, Bruns GR, Guinan PD, Bush IM 1974 Diethylstilbestrol exposure and lymphocyte impairment. J Am Med Assoc 292:1863
64. Mandybur TI, Ormsby I, Buncher CR 1978 Enhanced development of mammary tumors in rats following transplacental and neonatal exposure to ethylnitrosourea. Cancer Res 38:3182
65. Moon RC, Fricks CM 1977 Influence of gonadal hormones and age on 1, 2 dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis. Cancer 40:2502
66. Taper HS 1978 The effect of estradiol-17-phenylpropionate and estradiol benzoate on.N-nitrosomorpholine induced liver caranogenesis in ovariectomized female rats. Cancer 42:462
67. Brown CE, Warren S, Chute RN, Ryan KJ, Todd RB 1979 Hormonally induced tumors of the reproductive system of parabiosed male rats. Cancer Res 39:3971
68. Warran S, Brown CE, Chute RN 1979 Is breast cancer a result of endocrine targeting? (How women differ from rats or mice). Ann Clin Lab Sci 9:87
69. Sekiya S, Kikuchi Y, Katoh I, Kobayoshi W, Takeda B, Takamizawa H 1979 Effect of ovariectomy, adrenelectomy, and hypophysectomy on carcinogenesis of the endometrium by 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthrace in rats. Gynecol Oncol 7:281
70. Franks CR, Perkins FT, Bishop D 1975 The effect of sex hormones on the growth of HeLa tumor nodules in male and female mice. Br J Cancer 31:100
71. Kittas C, Henry L 1979 Effect of sex hormones on the immune system of guinea-pigs and on the development of toxoplasmic lesions in non-lymphoid organs. Clin Exp Immunol 36:16
72. Kittas C, Henry L 1980 Effect of sex hormones on the response of mice to infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Br J Exp Pathol 61:590
73. Ablin RJ, Bruns GR, Guinan P, Bush IM 1974 Antiandrogenic suppression of lympocytic blastogenesis: in vitro and in vivo observations. Experientia 30:1351
74. Mendelsohn J, Multer MM, Bernheim JL 1977 Inhibition of human lymphocyte stimulation by steroid hormones: cytokinetic mechanisms. Clin Exp Immunol 27:127
75. Wyle FA, Kent JR 1977 Immunosuppression by sex steroid hormones. I The effect upon PHAand PPD-stimulated lymphocytes. Clin Exp Immunol 27:407
76. 3H-thymidine by PHA-stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes. J Immunol 113:705
77. Kalland T, Strand O, Forsberg J-G 1979 Long-term effects of neonatal estrogen treatment on mitogen responsiveness of mouse spleen lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 63:413
78. Kalland T, Fossberg TM, Forsberg J-G 1978 Effect of estrogen and corticosterone on the lymphoid system in neonatal mice. Exp Mol Pathol 28:1978
79. Morishima A, Henrich R 1974 Lymphocyte transformation and oral contraceptives. Lancet: Sept 14:646
80. Ablin RJ, Bruns GR, Guinan PD, Sheik HA, Bush IM 1976 Hormonal therapy and alteration of lymphocyte proliferation. J Lab Clin Med 87:227
81. Stimson WH, Hunter IC 1976 An investigation into the immunosuppressive properties of estrogen. J Endocrinol 69:42P
82. Seaman WE, Gindhart TD 1979 Effect of estrogen on natural killer cells. Arthritis Rheum 22:1234
83. Danel L, Sovweine G, Monier JC, Saez S 1983 Specific estrogen binding sites in human lymphoid cells and thymic cells. J Steroid Biochem 18:559
84. Grossman CJ, Sholiton LJ, Nathal P 1979 Rat thymic estrogen receptor-I. Preparation, location and physiochemical properties. J Steroid Biochem 11:1233
85. Grossman CJ, Nathan P, Taylor BB, Sholitan LJ 1979 Rat thymic dihydrotestosterone receptor: preparation, location and physiochemical properties. Steroids 34:539
86. Ruh MF, Brzyski RG, Strange L, Ruh TS 1983 Estrogen and antiestrogen binding to different forms of the molybdate-stabilized estrogen receptor. Endocrinology 112:2203
87. Moncharmont B, Parikh I, Puca GA, Cuatrecasas P 1982 Effect of sodium molybdate on cytosolic estrogen receptor. J Steroid Biochem 16:361
88. Sirett DAN, Grant JK 1982 Effect of sodium molybdate on the interaction of androgens and progestins with binding proteins in human hyperplastic prostatic tissue. J Endocrinol 92:95
89. Lotem J, Sachs L 1975 Induction of specific changes in the surface membrane of myeloid leukemic cells by steroid hormones. Br J Cancer 15:731
90. Morgan JI, Hall AK, Perris AD 1975 Requirements for divalent cations by hormonal mitogens and their interactions with sex steroids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 66:188
91. Morgan JI, Perris AD 1973 The influence of sex steroids on calciumand magnesium-induced mitogenesis in isolated rat thymic lymphocytes. J Cell Physiol 83:287
92. Morgan JI, Bramhall JS, Britten AZ, Perris AD 1976 Calcium and oestrogen interactions upon the rat thymic lymphocyte plasma membrane. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 72:663
93. Smith GR, Gurson ML, Riddell AJ, Perris AD 1975 Inhibitory action of oestrogen on calcium-induced mitosis in rat bone marrow and thymus. J Endocrinol 65:45
94. Cohn DA 1979 Sensitivity to androgen. A possible factor in sex differences in the immune response. Clin Exp Immunol 38:218
95. Cohn DA 1979 High sensitivity to androgen as a contributing factor in sex differences in the immune response. Arthritis Rheum 22:1218
96. Franks CR 1975 Hormonal exposure and lymphocytic impairment. J Am Med Assoc 232:19
97. Blazkovec AA, Orsini MW 1976 Ontogenic aspects of sexual dimorphism and the primary immune response to sheep erythrocytes in hamsters from prepuberty through senescence. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 50:55
98. Skowron-Cendrzak A, Plonka I, Bubak M, Rembiesa R 1975 Reduction of the graft-versus-host reactivity of mouse and rat spleen cells by 5-androstane-3, 17-dione. Folia Biol (Praha) 12:190
99. Viklicky V, Polackova M, Vojtiskova M, Draber P, Kohda ME 1977 Immuno-suppressive effect of an antiandrogenic steroid (cyproterone acetate) in mice. Folio Biol (Praha) 23:145
100. Neuman F, Schleusener A, Albring M 1980 Pharmacology of antiandrogens. IV. Therapy with sex hormones and hormone metabolites: In: (ed) Hammerstein J, Lochnit U, Neumann Y, Plewig G. Androgenization in women, acne, seborrhoea, androgenetic alopaecia and hirsutism. Lectures and discussion of a symposium. Berlin, 23rd-24th Feb, 1979. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, p 147
101. Steinberg AD, Melez KA, Raveche ES, Reeves JP, Boegel WA, Smathers PA, Taurog JD, Weinlein L, Duvic M 1979 Approach to the study of the role of sex hormones in autoimmunity. Arthritis Rheum 22:1170
102. Verheul HAM, Stimson WH, Den Hollander FC, Schuurs AHWM 1981 The effects of nandrolene, testosterone and their decanoate esters on murine lupus. Clin Exp Immunol 44:11
103. Raveche ES, Tjio JH, Boegel W, Steinberg AD 1979 Studies of the effects of sex hormones on autosomal and X-linked genetic control of induced and spontaneous antibody production. Arthritis Rheum 22:1177
104. Raveche ES, Tjio JH, Steinberg AD 1980 Genetic studies in NZB mice. IV The effect of sex hormones on the spontaneous production of anti-T cell antibodies. Arthritis Rheum 23:48
105. Murphy ED, Roths JB 1979 AY chromosome associated factor in strain BxSB producing accelerated autoimmunity and lymphoproliferation. Arthritis Rheum 22:1188
106. Talal N 1981 Sex steroid hormones and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 24:1054
107. Laskin CA, Taurog JD, Smathers PA, Steinberg AD 1981 Studies of defective tolerance in murine lupus. J Immunol 127:1743
108. Inman RD 1978 Immunologic sex differences and the female predominance in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 21:849
109. Miller KB, Schwartz RS 1979 Familial abnormalities of suppressor-cell function in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 301:803
110. Sakans T, Steinberg AD, Green I 1978 Studies of immune functions of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. I. Dysfunction of suppressor T-cell activity related to impaired generation of, rather than response to, suppressor cells. Arthritis Rheum 21:657
111. Morimoto C 1978 Loss of suppressor T-lymphocyte functions in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immuol 32:125
112. Horowitz S, Borcherding W, Vishnu Moorthy A, Chesney R, Schulte-Wissermann H, Hong R 1977 Induction of suppressor T cells in systemic lupus erythematosus by thymosin and cultured thymic epithelium. Science 197:999
113. Lahita RG, Bradlow HL, Kunkel HG, Fishman J 1979 Alterations of estrogen metabolism in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 22:1195
114. Lahita RG, Bradlow HL, Kunkel HG, Fishman J 1981 Increased 16-hydroxylation of estradiol in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53:174
115. Talal N 1979 Systemic lupus erythematosus, autoimmunity, sex and inheritance. N Engl J Med 301:838
116. Okayasu I, Kong YM, Rose NR 1981 Effect of castration and sex hormones on experimental autoimmune thyroiditis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 20:240
117. Montgomery IN, Rauch HC 1982 Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice: primary control of EAE susceptibility is outside the H-2 complex. J Immunol 128:421
118. Wingrave SJ 1978 Reduction in incidence of rheumatoid arthritis associated with oral contraceptives. Lancet 1:569
119. Linos A, Worthington JW, O’Fallan WM, Kurland LT 1980 The epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota: a study of prevalence, incidence and mortality. Am J Epidemiol 111:87
120. Vandenbroucke JP, Valkenburg HA, Boersma JW 1982 Oral contraceptives and rheumatoid arthritis: further evidence for a preventive effect. Lancet ii:839
121. Vandenbroucke JP 1982 Rheumatoid arthritis, the pill and self selection. Lancet ii: 1282
122. Arnason BG, Richman DP 1969 Effect of oral contraceptives on experimental demyelinating disease. Arch Neurol 21:103
123. Gerretsen G, Kremer J, Nater JP, Bleumink E, deGast GC, The TH 1979 Immune reactivity of women on hormonal contraceptives. Dinitrochlorobenzene sensitization test and skin reactivity to irritants. Contraception 19:83
124. Gerretsen G, Kremer J, Bleumink E, Nater JP, de Gast GC, The TH 1980 Immune reactivity of women on hormonal contraceptives. Phytohemagglutinin and concanavalin-A induced lymphocyte response. Contraception 22:25
125. Gelfand JA 1983 Exploring sex for therapeutic purposes. N Engl J Med 23:1417
126. Ahn YS, Harrington WJ, Simon SR, Mylvaganam R, Pall LM, So AG 1983 Danazol for the treatment of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. N Engl J Med 308:1396
127. Viken KE 1976 The effect of steroids on adhesiveness, rosetteforming ability and survival of cultured, human mononuclear cells. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 84:5
128. Stoll HW, Ansell JS, Barnes MS, Barnes G 1974 The autoimmune response to male reproductive tissues of rabbits. III. Effects of testosterone and estrogen on cryoimmunogenic and immunochemical expressions of the central accessory glands. Invest Urol 12:236
129. Hirota Y, Suzuki T, Chazono Y, Bito Y 1976 Humoral immune responses characteristics of testosterone propionate treated chickens. Immunology 30:341
130. Szenberg A 1970 Influence of testosterone on the primary lymphoid organs of the chicken. In: Wolstenholme GE, Knight J (eds) Hormones and the Immune System, Ciba Foundation Study Group No 35, Ed: Churchill, London, p 42
131. Dixon DK, Fitzsimmons RC 1980 Thymic development of the chick embryo as influenced by hormonal and early surgical bursectomy. Dev Comp Immunol 4:713
132. Hirota Y, Suzuki T, Bito Y 1980 The B-cell development independent of bursa of Fabricius but dependent upon the thymus in chickens treated with testosterone propionate. Immunology 39:37
133. Hirota Y, Suzuki T, Bito Y 1980 The development of unusual Bcell functions in the testosterone-propionate-treated chicken. Immunology 39:29
134. Kotani M, Nawa Y, Fujii H, Fukumoto T, Tsuchiya H 1975 Histological observations of inhibitory effect of testosterone on lymphoid regeneration in the thymus-independent areas of B mice. Arch Histol Jpn 38:117
135. Kotani M, Nawa Y, Fujii H 1974 Inhibition by testosterone of immune reactivity and of lymphoid regeneration in irradiated and marrow reconstituted mice. Experientia 30:1343
136. Fujii H, Nawa Y, Tsuchiya H, Matsuno K, Fukumoto T, Fukuda S, Kotani M 1975 Effect of a single administration of testosterone on the immune response and lymphoid tissue in mice. Cell Immunol 20:315
137. Munroe JS 1971 Progesteroids as immunosuppressive agents. J Reticuloendothel Soc 9:361
138. Kind FA, Ciaccio LA 1980 Suppression of immune response by progesterone. Endocrinol Exp 14:27
139. Sekiya S, Kamiyama M, Takamizawa H 1975 In vivo and in vitro tests of inhibitory effect of progesterone on cell-mediated immunity in rats bearing a syngenic uterine adenocarcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 54:769
140. Holdstock G, Chastenay BF, Krawitt EL 1982 Effects of testosterone, estradiol and progesterone on immune regulation. Clin Exp Immunol 47:449
141. Mori T, Kobayashi H, Nishimura T, Mori TS, Fujii G, Inou T 1975 Inhibitory effect of progesterone on the phytohaemagglutinin-induced transformation of human peripheral lymphocytes. Immunol Commun 4:519
142. Mori T, Kobayashi H, Nishimoto H, Suzuki A, Nishimura T, Mori T 1977 Inhibitory effect of progesterone and 20-hydroxypregn-4-en-3-one on the phytohaemagglutinin-induced transformation of human lymphocytes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 127:151
143. Siiteri PK, Febres F, Clemens LE, Chang JR, Gondos B, Stites D 1977 Progesterone and maintenance of pregnancy: is progesterone nature’s immuno-suppressant? Ann NY Acad Sei 286:384
144. Williams G, Ghanadian R, Papadopoulos AS, Castro JE 1978 Hormonal environment of immunosuppressed mice. Br J Cancer 37:123
145. Rebar RW, Miyaka A, Low TLK, Goldstein AA 1981 Thymosin stimulates secretion of luteinizing hormone-releasing factor. Science, 214:669
146. Rebar RW, Morandini IC, Silva da Sa MF, Erickson GF, Petze JE 1981 The importance of the thymus gland for normal reproductive function in mice. In: Schwartz NB, Hunzicker-Dunn M (eds) Dynamics of Ovarian Function. Raven Press, New York, p 285
147. Rebar RW, Miyaka A, Erickson GF, Low TLK, Goldstein AL 1983 The influence of the thymus gland on reproductive function: A hypothalmic site of action. In: Greenwald GS, Terranova PF (eds) Factors Regulating Ovarian Function. Raven Press, New York, p 465
148. Michael SD, Taguchi O, Nisizuka Y, McClure JE, Goldstein AL, Barkley MS 1981 The effects of neonatal thymectomy on early follicular loss and circulating levels of corticosterone, progesterone, estradiol and thymosin. In: Schwartz NV, Hunzicker-Dunn M (eds) Dynamics of Ovarian Function. Raven Press, New York, p 279
149. Michael SD, Taguchi O, Nishizuka Y 1980 Effect of neonatal thymectomy on ovarian development and plasma LH, FSH, GH and PRL in the mouse. Biol Reprod 22:343
150. Michael SD 1981 The role of the endocrine thymus in female reproduction. Arthritis Rheum 22:1241
151. Bardawil WA, Mitchell GW, McKeogh RP, Marchant DJ 1962 Behavior of skin homografts in human pregnancy I. Habitual abortion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 84:1283
152. Thong YH, Steele RW, Vincent MM, Hensen SA, Bellanti JA 1971 Impaired in vitro cell-mediated immunity to rubella virus during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 289:604
153. Black WG, Simon J, McNutt SH, Casida LE 1953 Investigations on the physiological basis for the differential response of estrous and pseudopregnant rabbit uteri to induced infection. Am J Vet Res 11:318
154. Finn R, St. Hill CA, Govan AJ, Ralfs IG, Gurney FJ 1972 Immunological responsiveness in pregnancy and survival of fetal homograft. Br Med J 3:150
155. Purtilo DT, Hallgren HM, Yunis EJ 1972 Depressed maternal lymphocyte response to phytohemagglutinin in human pregnancy. Lancet 1:769 (April 8)
156. Smith JK, Caspary EA, Field EJ 1972 Immune response in pregnancy. Lancet 1:96 (Jan 8)
157. Wyle FA, Kent JR 1977 Immunosuppression by sex steroid hormones. I The effect upon PHA and PPD-stimulated lymphocytes. Clin Exp Immunol 27:407
158. Carter J 1976 The effect of progesterone, oestradiol and HCG on cell-mediated immunity in pregnant mice. J Reprod Fertil 46:211
159. Anderson RH, Monroe CW 1962 Experimental study of the behavior of adult human skin homografts during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 84:1096
160. Watnick AS, Russo RA 1968 Survival of skin homografts in uteri of pregnant and progesterone-estrogen treated rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 128:1
161. Simmons RL, Price AL, Ozerkis AJ 1968 The immunologic problem of pregnancy. V The effect of estrogen and progesterone on allograft survival. Am J Obstet Gynecol 100:908
162. Munroe JP 1971 Progesteroids as immunosuppressive agents. J Reticuloendothel Soc 9:361
163. Mariyama I, Sugawa T 1972 Progesterone facilitates implantation of xenogeneic cultured cells in hamster uterus. Nature New Biol 236:150
164. Haines RF, Johnson AG, Petering HG 1967 Symposium on im-munosuppressive drugs. Variable influences of antitumor drugs and progestational agents on immune responses in rodents. Fed Proc 26:934
165. Anderson MJ 1971 Transplantation—nature’s success. Lancet 2:1077 (Nov 13)
166. Anderson JM 1970 Studies of artificial immunological inertia. In: Anderson JM (ed) The Biology and Surgery of Tissue Transplantation. Oxford Press, London, p 129
167. Turcotte JG, Haines RF, Niederhuber JE, Gikas PW 1971 Allograft prolongation with synthetic progestins. Transplant Proc 3:814
168. Turcotte JG, Haines RF, Brody GLM, Mayer TJ, Schwartz SA 1968 Immunosuppression with medroxyprogesterone acetate. Transplantation 6:248
169. Hulka JF, Mohr K, Lieberman MW 1965 Effect of synthetic progestational agents on allograft rejection and circulating antibody production. Endocrinology 77:897
170. Krohn PL 1954 The effect of steroid hormones on the survival of skin homografts in the rabbit. J Endocrinol 11:78
171. Skinnider LF, Laxdal V 1981 The effect of progesterone, oestrogens and hydrocortisone on the mitogenic response of lymphocytes to phytohaemagglutinin in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 88:1110
172. Chaouat G, Voisin GA 1981 Regulatory T cells in pregnancy. V Allopregnancy-induced T-cell suppressor factor is H-2 restricted and bears la determinants. Cell Immunol 62:186
173. Hirano T, Nordin AA 1976 Cell-mediated immune response in vitro. II The mechanism(s) involved in the suppression of the development of cytotoxic lymphocytes. J Immunol 117:2226
174. St. Hill CA, Finn R, Denye V 1973 Depression of cellular immunity in pregnancy due to a serum factor. Br Med J 3:513
175. Lawrence R, Church JA, Richards W, Borzy M 1980 Immunological mechanisms in the maintenance of pregnancy. Ann Allergy 44:166
176. Murgita RA 1977 The immunosuppressive role of alpha-fetoprotein during pregnancy. Scand J Immunol 5:1003
177. Murgita RA, Wigzell H 1977 The effect of mouse alpha-fetoprotein on T-cell dependent and T-cell independent immune responses in vitro. Scand J Immunol 5:1215
178. Auer IO, Kress HG 1977 Suppression of the primary cell-mediated immune response by human alpha-fetoprotein in vitro. Cell Immunol 30:173
179. Littman BH, Alpert E, Racklin RE 1977 The effect of purified alpha-fetoprotein on in vitro assays of cell-mediated immunity. Cell Immunol 30:35
180. Mori T, Kobayashi H 1977 Possible role of progesterone in immunoregulation during pregnancy. In: Boettcher B (ed) Immunological Influence on Human Fertility; Proceedings of the Workshop on Fertility in Human Reproduction. Academic Press, New York, p 175
181. Stites DP, Pavia CS, Clemens LE, Kuhn RW, Siiteri PK 1979 Immunologic regulation in pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum 22:1300
182. Neifeld JP, Tormey DC 1979 Effect of steroid hormones on phytohemagglutinin-stimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Transplantation 27:309
183. Schiff RI, Mercier D, Buckley RH 1975 Inability of gestational hormones to account for the inhibitory effects of pregnancy plasmas on lymphocyte responses in vitro. Cell Immunol 20:69
184. Clemens LE, Siiteri PK, Stites DP 1979 Mechanism of immunosuppression of progesterone on maternal lymphocyte activation during pregnancy. J Immunol 122:1978
185. Mendelsohn J, Multer MM, Berheim JL 1977 Inhibition of human lymphocyte stimulation by steroid hormones: Cytokinetic mechanisms. Clin Exp Immunol 27:127
186. Westphal U 1971 Influence of various endogenous factors on CBG activity in the rat. In: Steroid-Protein Interactions. SpringerVerlag, New York. Monogr Endocrinol 4:249
187. Phuc LH, Papiernik M, Dardenne M 1981 Thymic involution in pregnant mice. II Functional aspects of the remaining thymocytes. Clin Exp Immunol 44:253
188. Phuc LH, Papiernick M, Berrih S, Duval D 1981 Thymic involution in pregnant mice. I Characterization of the remaining thymocyte subpopulations. Clin Exp Immunol 44:247
189. Millar KG, Mills P, Baines MG 1973 A study of the influence of pregnancy on the thymus gland of the mouse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 117:913
190. Maurer HR, Chalkley GR 1967 Some properties of a nuclear binding site of estradiol. J Mol Biol 27:431
191. Grossman CJ, Sholiton LJ, Nathan P 1979 Rat thymic estrogen receptor-I. Preparation, location and physiochemical properties. J Steroid Biochem 11:1233
192. Grossman C, Nathan P 1977 Specific estrogen receptor in rat and beef thymus. Fed Proc 36:1236 (abstract)
193. Grossman CJ, Nathan P 1977 Specific estrogen receptor in epithelial-reticular cells of the rat thymus. Physiologist 20:38
194. Reichman ME, Villee CA 1978 Estradiol binding by rat thymus cytosol. J Steroid Biochem 9:637
195. Screpanti I, Gulino A, Pasqualini JR 1982 The fetal thymus of guinea pig as as estrogen target organ. Endocrinology 111:1552
196. Thompson Jr EA 1981 The effects of estradiol upon the thymus of the sexually immature female mouse. J Steroid Biochem 14:167
197. Anderson DJ, West NB 1979 Specific estrogen receptor in the mouse thymus and spleen. Fed Proc 38:1017 (abstract)
198. Jones LA, Roubinian J, Talal N, Siiteri PK 1980 Estradiol receptors in mouse thymus. Proc Endocrine Society 62nd Annual Meeting, Washington DC (abstract 315)
199. Siiteri PK, Jones LA, Roubiniaen JR, Talal NK 1980 Sex steroids and the immune system. I. Sex difference in autoimmune disease in NZBJ NZW hybrid mice. J Steroid Biochem 12:425
200. Grossman CJ, Nathan P, Sholiton LJ 1978 Specific androgen receptor in the thymus of the castrate male rat. Biol Reprod 18:48A (abstract)
201. Sasson S, Mayer M 1981 Effect of androgenic steroids on rat thymus and thymocytes in suspension. J Steroid Biochem 14:509
202. McCruden AB, Stimson WH 1981 Androgen binding cytosol receptors in the rat thymus: physicochemical properties, specificity and localisation. Thymus 3:105
203. McCruden AB, Stimson WH 1980 Androgen and other sex steroid cytosol receptors in the rat thymus. J Endocrinol 85:47P
204. Raveche E, Vigersky R, Tjio JH, Steinberg AD 1980 Murine thymic androgen receptors. J Immunopharmacol 2:425 (abstract)
205. Pearce PT, Khalid BAK, Funder JW 1983 Progesterone receptors in rat thymus. Endocrinology 113:1287
206. Pearce P, Khalid BAK, Funder JW 1981 Androgens and the thymus. Endocrinology 109:1073
207. Norton JM, Wira CR 1977 Dose-related effects of the sex hormones and cortisol on the growth of the bursae of Fabricius in chick embryos. J Steroid Biochem 8:985
208. Meyer RK, Rao MA, Aspinall RL 1959 Inhibition of the development of the bursa of Fabricius in the embryos of the common fowl by 19-nortestosterone. Endorcrinology 64:890
209. Sullivan DA, Wira CR 1979 Sex hormone and glucocorticoid receptors in the bursa of Fabricius of immature chicks. J Immunol 122:2617
210. Coulson P, Skafar D, Seaver S, Thornthwaite J 1981 Dihydrotestosterone modulation of glucocorticoid receptor levels in thymus and bursa of Fabricius cells in immature chickens. Proceedings of the Endocrinology Society 63 Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH, p 255 (abstract 692)
211. Sholiton LJ, Grossman CJ, Taylor BB 1980 Rat thymic homongenates convert testosterone to androgenic metabolites. J Steroid Biochem 13:1365
212. Weinstein Y, Linder HR, Eckstein B 1977 Thymic metabolises progesterone-possible enzymatic marker for T lymphocytes. Nature 266:632
213. Hattori M, Brandon MR 1983 Thymus and the endocrine system: ovarian dysgenesis in neonatally thymectomized rats. J Endocrinol 83:101
214. Michael SD 1983 Interactions of the thymus and the ovary. In: Greenwald GS, Terranova PF (ed) Factors Regulating Ovarian Function. Raven Press, New York, p 445
215. Michael SD, Taguchi O, Nishizuka Y 1983 Hormonal manifestations of accelerated aging and tumorigenesis of the ovaries in neonatally thymectomized mice. Submitted to Endocrinology.
216. Nishizuka Y, Sakakura T, Tsujimura T, Matsumoto K 1973 Steroid biosynthesis in vitro by disgenic ovaries induced by neonatal thymectomy in mice. Endocrinology 93:786
217. Armstrong RW, McCallion DJ, Younglai EV 1978 Morphological changes in the rabbit ovary after active immunization to testosterone. Cell Tissue Res 193:533
218. Bukovsky A, Presl J 1979 Ovarian function and the immune system. Med Hypotheses 5:415
219. Espey LL 1980 Ovulation as an inflammatory reaction—a hypothesis. Biol Reprod 22:73
220. Farooki R 1981 Atresia: an hypothesis. In: Schwartz NB, Hunzicker-Dunn M (eds) Dynamics of Ovarian Function. Raven Press, New York, p 13
221. Rebar WR, Morandini IC, Petze JE, Erickson GF 1982 Hormonal basis of reproductive defects in athymic mice: reduced gonadotropin and testosterone in males. Biol Reprod 27:1267
222. Rebar RW, Morandini IC, Erickson GF, Petze JE 1981 The hormonal basis of reproductive defects in athymic mice: diminished gonadotropin concentrations in prepubertal females. Endocrinology 108:120
223. Hall NR, McGillis JP, Spangelo BL, Goldstein AL 1982 Evidence for interaction between thymosin peptides and the pituitarygonadal axis. Fed Proc 41:(abstract)
224. Low TLK, Thurman GB, Zatz MM, Hu SK, Goldstein AL 1981 A multifaceted role for thymosin and its composite peptides in Tcell regulation. In: Hadden J (ed) Advances in Immunopharmacology. Pergamon Press, New York, p 67
225. Besedovsky HO, Sorkin E 1974 Thymus involvement in female sexual maturation. Nature 249:356
226. Michael SD, Allen LS, McClure JE, Goldstein AL, Barkley MS 1981 Interactions between estradiol and thymosin levels in the female mouse. The Endocrine Society 63rd Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, (abstract)
227. Allen LS, McClure JE, Goldstein AL, Barkley MS, Michael SD 1983 Estrogen and thymic hormone interactions in the female mouse. J Reprod Immunol 6:25
228. Smith GR, Edwards DJ, Perris AD 1976 Fluctuations in plasma calcium concentration and mitotic activity in bone marrow and thymus during the oestrous cycle of the rat. J Endocrinol 69:29 P
229. McGillis JP, Hall NR, Goldstein AL 1983 Circadian rhythm of thymosin a, in normal and thymectomized mice. J Immunol 131:148
230. Glick SM 1969 The regulation of growth hormone secretion. In: Gonong WF, Martini L (eds) Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. Oxford Univ Press, New York, p 141
231. Comsa J 1973 Hormonal interactions of the thymus. In: Lucky TD (ed) Thymic Hormones. Univ Park Press, Baltimore, p 59
232. White A, Goldstein AL 1975 The endocrine role of the thymus and its hormone, thymosin, in the regulation of the growth and maturation of host immunological competence. Adv Metab Disord 8:359
233. Ahlqvist J 1976 Endocrine influences on the lymphotic organs, immune responses, inflammation and autoimmunity. Acta Endocrinol (Suppl) 83:206
234. Besedovsky H, Sorkin E 1977 Network of immunoneuroenendocrine interactions. Clin Exp Immunol 27:1
235. Makinodan T 1979 Control of immunologic abnormalities associated with aging. Mech Aging Dev 9:7