The cultural ecology of economic development

Annals of the Association of American Geographers

Volumn 71, Issue 2, 1981, Pages 220-236

  Grossman, Larry ^a  

^a VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; CASH CROPS; ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE; PAPUA NEW GUINEA; SUBSISTENCE SYSTEM; VILLAGE SYSTEMS;

EID: 0019704395     PISSN: 00045608     EISSN: 14678306     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1981.tb01349.x     Document Type: Article

References (45)

1. H. Brookfield, “Constraints to Agrarian Change”, in J. H. Winslow, ed. The Melanesian Environment (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977), pp. 133-38, reference on p. 138.
2. For a summary and critique of this position, see C. Hutton and R. Cohen, “African Peasants and Resistance to Change: A Reconsideration of Sociological Approaches”, in I. Oxaal, T. Barnett, and D. Booth,eds. Beyond the Sociology of Development: Economy and Society in Latin America and Africa (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975), pp. 105-30.
3. For useful collections on this topic, see R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds. The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (London: Heinemann, 1977), and M. A. Klein, ed. Peasants in Africa: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Sage Series on African Modernization and Development, Vol. 4 (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980).
4. E. K. Fisk, “Labour Absorption Capacity of Subsistence Agriculture”, Economic Record, Vol. 47 (1971), pp. 366-78, reference on p. 368. Fisk has also
5. A. R. DeSouza and P. W. Porter, The Underdevelopment and Modernization of the Third World, Commission on College Geography, Resource Paper No. 28 (Washington, D.C.: Association of American Geographers, 1974), reference on pp. 2-4.
6. R. A. Rappaport, “Maladaptation in Social Systems”, in J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, eds. The Evolution of Social Systems (London: Duckworth, 1977), pp. 49-71; B. Nietschmann, “Ecological Change, Inflation, and Migration in the Far West Caribbean”, The Geographical Review, Vol. 69 (1979), pp. 1-24.
7. J. W. Bennett, The Ecological Transition: Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation (New York: Pergamon Press, 1976), reference on p. 71.
8. See, for example, R. M. Netting, Cultural Ecology (Menlo Park: Cummings, 1977); D. L. Hardesty, Ecological Anthropology (New York: John Wiley, 1977); and E. F. Moran, Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology (North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press, 1979).
9. See A. P. Vayda, ed. Environment and Cultural Behavior: Ecological Studies in Cultural Anthropology (Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press, 1969); W. C. Clarke, Place and People: An Ecology of a New Guinea Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); and E. Waddell, The Mound Builders: Agricultural Practices, Environment, and Society in the Central Highlands of New Guinea (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972); for a discussion of this perspective, see Grossman, op. cit. footnote 7.
10. See A. P. Vayda and B. J. McCay, “New Directions in Ecology and Ecological Anthropology”, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1975), pp. 293306; B. J. McCay, “Systems Ecology, People Ecology, and the Anthropology of Fishing Communities”, Human Ecology, Vol. 6 (1978), pp. 397-422; and G. E. B. Morren, Jr. “The Rural Ecology of the British Drought of 1975-1976”, Human Ecology, Vol. 8 (1980), pp. 33-63.
11. Grossman, op. cit. footnote 7, reference on p. 142.
12. B. Nietschmann, Between Land and Water: The Subsistence Ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua (New York: Seminar Press, 1973); and Nietschmann, op. cit. footnote 9.
13. H. C. Brookfield, “The Money that Grows on Trees: The Consequences of an Innovation within a Man-Environment System”, Australian Geographical Studies, Vol. 6 (1968), pp. 97-119; and idem, “Full Circle in Chimbu: A Study of Trends and Cycles”, in H. C. Brookfield, ed. The Pacific in Transition: Geographical Perspectives on Adaptation and Change (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1973), pp. 127-60.
14. Fieldwork was conducted from April to October, 1976, January to December, 1977, and in August, 1979.
15. R. G. Ward and J. A. Ballard, “In Their Own Image: Australia's Impact on Papua New Guinea and Lessons for Future Aid”, Australian Outlook, Vol. 30 (1976), pp. 439-58.
16. For a summary of recent changes, see J. Connell, “The Emergence of a Peasantry in Papua New Guinea”, Peasant Studies, Vol. 8 (1979), pp. 103-37.
17. Department of Primary Industry files, Port Moresby.
18. D. Howlett et al. Chimbu: Issues in Development (Canberra: Australian National University, 1976), reference on p. 28.
19. Elsewhere, I refer to the clans as “patrilineage clusters'” for certain technical reasons. See L. Grossman, “Cash, Cattle, and Coffee: The Cultural Ecology of Economic Development in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea”, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Australian National University, 1979, reference on pp. 29-31.
20. The Kina is the monetary unit of Papua New Guinea. In 1977, IK = US $1.35.
21. Tok Pixin is the lingua franca of the northern half of Papua New Guinea.
22. P. J. Vickery, “Grazing and Net Primary Production of a Temperate Grassland”, Journal of Applied Ecology, 311. Vol. 9 (1972), pp. 307-14, reference on p. 31 R. Hide, personal communication, 1974.
23. Smaller projects also received funding. Based on data collected on thirteen households.
24. H. C. Brookfield with D. Hart, Melanesia: A Geographical Interpretation of an Island World (London: Methuen, 1971), reference on p. 225.
25. Brookfield (1973), op. cit. footnote 16, reference on pp. 149-50.
26. D. Townsend, “The 1976 Coffee Boom in Papua New Guinea”, Australian Geographer, Vol. 13 (1977), pp. 419-22.
27. Processing includes pulping, fermenting, washing, and drying.
28. Highlanders have no traditional alcoholic beverages. People must purchase bottle beer or liquor in the towns. To study the allocation of time by members of thirteen households in the sample. I used a slightly altered form of the method devised by A. Johnson, “Time Allocation in a Machiguenga Community”, Ethnology, Vol. 14 (1975), pp. 301-10.
29. Post-Courier (Papua New Guinea), “Rice Restrictions a Worry”, April 10, 1979, p. 15.
30. Brookfield, op. cit. footnote 1, reference on p. 138.
31. See also Brookfield, op. cit. footnote 16.
32. Brookfield with Hart, op. cit. footnote 37, reference on p. 227.
33. “ Nietschmann (1973), op. cit. footnote 15, reference on p. 149.
34. Wisner, op. cit. footnote 18, reference on p. 209.
35. Clarke (1978), op. cit. footnote 17.
36. R. Palmer, “The Agricultural History of Rhodesia”, in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds. The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (London: Heinemann, 1977), pp. 221-54, reference on p. 228.
37. Grossman, op. cit. footnote 24.
38. Taxes do not significantly affect this reversibility.
39. On this issue, see Watts, op. cit. footnote 18.
40. Nietschmann, op. cit. footnote 9.
41. L. Juda, “International Environmental Concern: Perspectives of and Implications for Developing Nations”, in D. W. Orr and M. S. Soroos, eds. The Global Predicament: Ecological Perspectives on World Order (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1979), pp. 90-107.
42. Mitchell, op. cit. footnote 18, reference on p. 116; Eder, op. cit. footnote 18, reference on p. 63; G. Harris, “Cash Cropping or Subsistence Farming-a PNG Dilemma”, Pacific Islands Monthly, Vol. 49 (1978), pp. 61-63, reference on p. 62; and Nietschmann, op. cit. footnote 9, reference on p. 15.
43. See P. W. Porter, Food and Development in the Semi-Arid Zone of East Africa, Foreign and Comparative Studies, African Series No. 32 (Syracuse: Syracuse University, 1979); and Watts, op. cit. footnote 18.
44. Nietschmann, op. cit. footnote 9.
45. D. Howlett, “Terminal Development: From Tribalism to Peasantry”, in H. C. Brookfield, ed. The Pacific in Transition: Geographical Perspectives on Adaptation and Change (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1973), pp. 249-73.