The Role of Rain in Satellite Communications

Proceedings of the IEEE

Volumn 63, Issue 9, 1975, Pages 1308-1331

  Hogg, David C ^a   Chu, Ta Shing ^a  

^a LUCENT TECHNOLOGIES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

PATH DIVERSITY;

RADIO SYSTEMS, DIVERSITY; RAIN AND RAINFALL; TELECOMMUNICATION LINKS, MICROWAVE; TELECOMMUNICATION LINKS, SATELLITE - RELIABILITY;

RADIO TRANSMISSION;

EID: 0016548787     PISSN: 00189219     EISSN: 15582256     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/PROC.1975.9940     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. “The Telstar experiment,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 42, pp. 739–1908, July 1963.
2. R. W. DeGrasse, E. O. Shultz-DuBois, and H. E. D. Scovil “Three-level solid-state traveling-wave maser,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 38, pp. 305–334, Mar. 1959.
3. D. C. Hogg and R. A. Semplak “The effect of rain and water vapor on sky noise at centimeter wavelengths,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 40, pp. 1331–1348, Sept. 1961.
4. A. J. Giger “4Gc transmission degradation due to rain at the Andover, Maine, satellite station,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 44, pp. 1528–1533, Sept. 1965.
5. D. C. Hogg, R. A. Semplak, and D. A. Gray, “Measurement of microwave interference at 4Gcs due to scatter by rain,” Proc. IEEE (Corresp.), vol. 51, p. 500, Mar. 1963.
6. J. A. Saxton, “Dielectric dispersion in pure liquids at very high radio frequencies,” Proc. Roy. Soc. A, vol. 213, pp. 400–408 and pp. 473–492, Mar. 1952.
7. P. S. Ray “Broadband complex refractive indices of ice and water,” Appl. Opt., vol. 11, pp. 1836–1844, Aug. 1972.
8. L. C. Tillotson “A model of a domestic satellite communication system,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 47, pp. 2111–2138, Dec. 1968.
9. “Telecommunications aspects on frequencies between 10 and 100 GHz,” in NATO-AGARD-Conf. Proc., no. 107, Sept. 1972.
10. “Propagation of radio waves at frequencies above 10 GHz,” in IEE Conf. Publ. 98, Apr. 1973.
11. “The fine structure of precipitation and EM propagation,” in I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., Oct. 1973.
12. H. W. Evans, “Attenuation on earth-space paths at frequencies up to 30 GHz,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Communications, pp. 27-1–27-5, June 1971.
13. T. S. Chu and D. C. Hogg, “Effects of precipitation on propagation at 0.63, 3.5 and 10.6 microns,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 47, pp. 723–759, May-June 1968.
14. K. S. McCormick, R. L. Olsen, and L. A. Maynard, “Amplitude fading of satellite communications signals at SHF,” in NATO-AGARD Conf. Proc. 107, pp. 18-1–18-8, Sept. 1972.
15. R. R. Taur “Ionospheric scintillation at 4 and 6 GHz,” COMSAT Tech. Rev., vol. 3, pp. 145–163, Spring 1973.
16. J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1941, pp. 563–573.
17. D. E. Kerr, Propagation of Short Radio Waves. Lexington, Mass.: Boston Tech., 1964, pp. 680–681.
18. Ibid, pp. 674–683.
19. R. G. Medhurst “Rainfall attenuation of centimeter waves: Comparison of theory and experiment,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat, vol. AP-13, pp. 550–563, July 1965.
20. D. E. Setzer “Computed transmission through rain at microwave and visible frequencies,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 49, pp. 1873–1892, Oct. 1970.
21. W. F. Bodtmann and C. L. Ruthroff “Rain attenuation on short radio paths: Theory, experiment, and design,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 53, pp. 1329–1350, Sept. 1974.
22. J. R. Norbury and W. J. K. White “Microwave attenuation at 35.8 GHz due to rainfall,” Electron. Lett., vol. 8, pp. 91–92, Feb. 1972.
23. R. A. Semplak and R. H. Turrin, “Some measurements of attenuation by rainfall at 18.5 GHz,” Bell. Syst. Tech. J., vol. 48, pp. 1767–1788, July–Aug. 1969.
24. R. K. Crane “Propagation phenomena affecting satellite communication systems operating in the centimeter and millimeter wavelength bands,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 59, pp. 173–205, Feb. 1971.
25. R. A. Semplak, “The influence of heavy rainfall on attenuation at 18.5 and 30.9 GHz,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-18, pp. 507–511, July 1970.
26. R.A. Semplak, — “Dual frequency measurements of rain-induced microwave attenuation on a 2.6-kilometer propagation path,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 50, pp. 2599–2606, Oct. 1971.
27. O. E. DeLange, A. F. Dietrich, and D. C. Hogg “An experiment on propagation of 60 GHz waves through rain,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 54, pp. 169–180, Jan. 1975.
28. L. J. Battan, Radar observation of the atmosphere. Chicago, Ill.: Univ. Chicago Press, 1973, pp. 176–178.
29. J. S. Marshall and C. D. Holtz “Pattern analysis of one summer's multilevel maps of Montreal rain,” Month. Weather Rev., vol. 98, pp. 335–345, May 1970.
30. B. J. Easterbrook and D. Turner “Prediction of attenuation by rainfall in the 10.7–11.7 GHz communication band,” Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 114, pp. 557–565, May 1967.
31. D. C. Hogg “Statistics on attenuation of microwaves by intense rain,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 48, pp. 2949–2962, Nov. 1969.
32. D. N. Harden, J. R. Norbury, and W. J. K. White, “Model of intense convective rain cells for estimating attenuation on terrestrial millimetric radio link,” Electron. Lett., vol. 10, pp. 483–484, Nov. 14, 1974.
33. H. R. Pruppacher and R. L. Pitter “A semi-empirical determination of the shape of cloud and rain drops,” J. Atmos. Sci., vol. 28, pp. 86–94, Jan. 1971.
34. T. Oguchi “Attenuation of electromagnetic waves due to rain with distorted raindrops,” J. Radio Res. Labs (Tokyo), part I in vol. 7, pp. 467–485, Sept. 1960; part 2 in vol. 11, pp. 18–44, Jan. 1964.
35. T. Oguchi “Attenuation and phase rotation of radio waves due to rain: Calculations at 19.3 and 34.8 GHz,” Radio Sci., vol. 8, pp. 31–38, Jan. 1973.
36. J. A. Morrison, M. J. Cross, and T. S. Chu “Rain-induced differential attenuation and differential phase shift at microwave frequencies,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 52, pp. 599–604, Apr. 1973.
37. J. A. Morrison and M. J. Cross, “Scattering of a plane electromagnetic wave by axisymmetric raindrops,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 43, pp. 955–1019, July–Aug. 1974.
38. H. C. Van deHulst, Light Scattering by Small Particles. New York: Wiley, pp. 28–36, 1957.
39. J. A. Morrison and T. S. Chu “Perturbation calculations of rain-induced differential attenuation and differential phase shift at microwave frequencies,” Belt Syst. Tech. J., vol. 52, pp. 1907–1913, Dec. 1973.
40. T. Oguchi and Y. Hosoya, “Differential attenuation and differential phase shift of radio waves due to rain: Calculations at microwave and millimeter wave regions,” in I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., pp. I.1-1–I.1-6, Oct. 1973.
41. R. A. Semplak “Effect of oblate raindrops on attenuation at 30.9 GHz,” Radio Sci., vol. 5, pp. 559–564, Mar. 1970.
42. W. T. Barnett, “Some experimental results on 18 GHz propagation,” in Conf. Rec. 1972 Nat. Telecommunications Conf., (IEEE Publication 72 CHO 601-5-NTC), pp. 10E-1-10E-4.
43. T. S. Chu “Rain induced cross-polarization at centimeter and millimeter wavelengths,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 53, pp. 1557–1579, Oct. 1974.
44. M. J. Saunders “Cross polarization at 18 and 30 GHz due to rain,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-19, pp. 273–277, Mar. 1971.
45. P. A. Watson and M. Arbabi “Rainfall cross polarization at microwave frequencies,” Proc. Inst Elec. Eng., vol. 120, pp. 413–418, Apr. 1973.
46. P.A. Watson, M. Arbabi, —, “Rainfall cross polarization, comparison of theory and measurement,” in I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., pp. I.3-1–I.3-6, Oct. 1973.
47. R. A. Semplak “Simultaneous measurements of depolarization by rain using linear and circular polarization at 18 GHz,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 53, pp. 400–404, Feb. 1974.
48. H. Yamamoto, K. Morita, and Y. Nakamura, “Experimental considerations on 20 GHz high-speed digital radio-relay system,” in Conf. Rec. 1973 IEEE Int. Conf. Communications (IEEE Publication 73 CHO 744-3-CSCB), pp. 28-37-28-42.
49. M. Shimba, K. Morita, and A. Akeyama “Radio propagation characteristics due to rain at 20 GHz band,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-22, pp. 507–509, May, 1974.
50. C. W. Bostian, W. L. Stutzman, P. H. Wiley, and R. E. Marshall, “Millimeter wave rain depolarization: Some recent 17.65 GHz measurements,” in 1973 IEEE/AP Int. Symp. Dig., pp. 289–292.
51. R. A. Semplak, “The effect of rain on circular polarization at 18 GHz,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 52, pp. 1029–1030, July–Aug. 1973.
52. R.A. Semplak, — “Measurements of rain-induced polarization rotation at 30 GHz,” Radio Sci., vol. 9, pp. 425–429, Apr. 1974.
53. S. H. Lin “An occurrence of very heavy rain on a 42-km path,” IEEE Trans., Commun., vol. COM-22, pp. 708–710, May 1974.
54. W. T. Barnett, “Determination of cross-polarization discrimination during rain and multipath fading at 4 GHz,” in Conf. Rec. 1974 Int. Conf. Communications (IEEE Publication 74 CHO 859-9-CSCB), pp. 12D-1-12D-4.
55. D. T. Thomas “Cross polarization discrimination in microwave radio transmission due to rain,” Radio Sci., vol. 6, pp. 833–839, Oct. 1971.
56. V. K. Prabhu “Error rate considerations for coherent phase-shift keyed systems with co-channel interference,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 48, pp. 743–767, Mar. 1969.
57. B. L. Ulich “Absolute brightness temperature measurements at 2.1 mm wavelength,” Icarus, vol. 21, pp. 254–261, 1974.
58. A. E. Covington “Solar emission at ten centimeter wavelength, 1947-1960,” J. Roy. Astron. Soc. Can., vol. 48, pp. 167–172, 1961.
59. P. G. Davies “Radiometric measurements of atmospheric at tenuation at 19 and 37 GHz along sun-earth paths,” Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 120, pp. 159–164, Feb. 1973.
60. R. G. Conway, “Measurement of radio sources at centimeter wavelengths,” Nature, vol. 199, p. 1177, Sept. 21, 1963.
61. R. W. Wilson, “Sun tracker measurements of attenuation by rain at 16 and 30 GHz,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 48, pp. 1383–1404, May–June 1969.
62. J. L. Linsky “The Moon as a proposed radiometric standard for microwave and infrared observations of extended sources,” Astrophys. J. (Suppl. Series no. 216), vol. 25, pp. 163–204, Feb. 1973.
63. A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson “Microwave noise from rain storm,” Science, vol. 169, pp. 583–584, Aug. 1970.
64. D. C. Hogg “Effective antenna temperature due to oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 30, pp. 1417–1419, Sept. 1959.
65. A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson, “A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 MCs,” Astrophys. J., vol. 142, pp. 419–421, Aug. 1, 1965.
66. R. H. Dicke, “The measurement of thermal radiation at microwave frequencies,” Rev. Sci. Instrum., vol. 17, p. 268, July 1946.
67. E. A. Ohm and W. W. Snell “A radiometer for a space communications receiver,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 42, pp. 2047–2080, Sept. 1963.
68. K. N. Wulfsberg “Sky noise measurements at millimeter wavelengths,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 52, pp. 321–322, Mar. 1964.
69. R. W. Wilson and W. L. Mammel, “Results from a three-radiometer path-diversity experiment,” in IEE Conf. Publ. 98, pp. 23–27 and supplementary notes, Apr. 1973.
70. K. N. Wulfsberg and E. E. Altshuler “Rain attenuation at 15 and 35 GHz,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-20, pp. 181–187, Mar. 1972.
71. L. J. Ippolito “Millimeter wave propagation measurements from the applications technology satellite (ATS-5),” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat, vol. AP-18, pp. 535–552, July 1970.
72. A. A. Penzias, “First result from 15.3 GHz earth-space propagation study,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 49, pp. 1242–1244, July–Aug. 1970.
73. J. I. Strickland, “The measurements of slant path attenuation using radar, radiometers and a satellite beacon,” in I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., pp. III.6-1–III.6-9, Oct. 1973.
74. L. J. Ippolito “Effects of precipitation on 15.3 and 31.6 GHz earth-space transmissions with the ATS-V satellite,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 59, pp. 189–205, Feb. 1971.
75. R. K. Crane, “Simultaneous radar and radiometer measurements of rain shower structure,” MIT Lincoln Lab., Lexington, Mass., Tech. Note 1968-33, ASTIA Doc AD-678079, Sept. 1968.
76. D. A. Gray, “The effect of scatter on radiometric observations of rainfall,” in USNC-URS1 Abstracts, p. 33, Apr. 1972.
77. A. M. Zavody “Effect of scattering by rain on radiometric measurements at millimeter wavelengths,” Proc. Inst Elec. Eng., vol. 121, pp. 257–263, Apr. 1974.
78. D. E. Setzer “Anisotropic scattering due to rain at radio-relay frequencies,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 50, pp. 861–868, Mar. 1971.
79. D. A. Gray “Unusually high Earth-space path attenuations measured using a 6.4 GHz radiometer,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 61, pp. 138–139, Jan. 1973.
80. H. D. Craft, Jr. “Attenuation statistics at 15.3 GHz for Clarksburg, Maryland,” COMSAT Tech. Rev., vol. 1, pp. 221–225, Fall 1971.
81. R. B. Briskman, R. F. Latter, and E. E. Muller “Call for help,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 11, pp. 35–36, Oct. 1974.
82. D. C. Cox, “Design of the Bell Laboratories 19 and 28 GHz satellite beacon propagation experiment,” in IEEE ICC Rec., pp. 27E-1–27E-5, June 1974.
83. H. Yokoi, M. Yamada, and A. Ogawa, “Measurement of precipitation attenuation for satellite communication at low elevation angles,” I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., pp. III.4-1–III.4-6, Oct. 1973.
84. K. S. McCormick “A comparison of precipitation attenuation and radar backscatter along Earth-space paths,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-20, pp. 747–754, Nov. 1972.
85. D. C. Hogg, “Millimeter-wave communication through the atmosphere,” Science, vol. 159, pp. 39–46, Jan. 5, 1968.
86. L. C. Tillotson, “Millimeter waves: Can they provide relief from spectrum crowding,” Microwave J., vol. 10, p. 32, Nov. 1967.
87. D. C. Hogg “Path diversity in propagation through rain,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat, vol. AP-15, pp. 410–415, May 1967.
88. R. W. Wilson, “A three-radiometer path-diversity experiment,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 49, pp. 1239–1241, July–Aug. 1970.
89. D. B. Hodge “A 15.3 GHz satellite-to-ground path-diversity experiment utilizing the ATS-5 satellite,” Radio Sci., vol. 9, pp. 1–6, Jan. 1974.
90. K. N. Wulfsberg “Path diversity for mm-wave Earth-to-satellite links,” Radio Sci., vol. 8, pp. 1–5, Jan. 1973.
91. D. A. Gray, “The relationship between satellite signal attenuations and sky temperature,” in USNC-URSI Abstracts, pp. 22–23, Apr. 1972.
92. T. G. Konrad, “A statistical model of rain showers derived from radar observations,” in USNC-URSI Abstracts, pp. 166–167, Oct. 1974.
93. L. J. Ippolito, “Attenuation and wideband coherence measurements at 20 and 30 GHz with the ATS-6 satellite,” USNC-URSI Abstracts, p. 166, Oct. 1974.
94. L. H. Westerlund, I. L. Levatich, and A. Buige “ATS-F COMSAT millimeter wave propagation experiment,” COMSAT Tech. Rev., vol. 3, pp. 323–334, Fall 1973.
95. B. G. Evans and I. Troughton, “Calculation of cross-polarization due to precipitation,” in IEE Conf. Publ. 98, pp. 162–171, Apr. 1973.
96. R. R. Taur “Rain depolarization: Theory and experiment,” COMSAT Tech. Rev., vol. 4, pp. 187–190, Spring 1974.
97. D. A. Gray, “Measurements of depolarization by rain at 20 GHz on the Earth-space path,” submitted to Proc. IEEE (Lett.).
98. D. C. Hogg, “Intensity and extent of rain on Earth-space paths,” Nature, vol. 243, pp. 337–338, June 8, 1973.
99. P. S. Henry “Measurement and frequency extrapolation of microwave attenuation statistics on the Earth-space path at 13, 19, and 30 GHz,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-23, pp. 271–274, Mar. 1975.
100. A. B. Crawford, D. C. Hogg, and W. H. Kummer “Studies in tropospheric propagation beyond the horizon,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 38, pp. 1067–1178, Sept. 1959.
101. P. L. Rice, A. G. Longley, K. A. Norton, and A. P. Barsis, “Transmission loss predictions for tropospheric communication circuits,” NBS Tech. Note 101, vol. 2, revised, May 1966.
102. L. T. Gusler and D. C. Hogg “Some calculations on coupling between satellite-communications and terrestrial radio-relay systems due to scattering by rain,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 49, pp. 1491–1512, Sept. 1970.
103. “Influence of scattering from precipitation on the siting of Earth stations,” in ITU Doc. XIII Plenary Assembly (CCIR Rep. 339-1 of Study Group No. 5), 1974.
104. R. K. Crane “Bistatic scatter from rain,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-22, pp. 312–320, Mar. 1974.
105. A. Buige and J. L. Levatich, “Measurement of precipitation scatter effects on propagation at 6, 12, and 18 GHz,” in Proc. AIAA 3rd Communications Satellite Systems Conf., paper No. 70-499, Apr. 6, 1970.
106. R. W. Hubbard, “Measurement and prediction of bistatic radio scattering due to precipitation,” I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., pp. III.3-1–III.3-11, Oct. 1973.
107. L. H. Doherty and S. A. Stone “Forward scatter from rain,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-8, pp. 414–418, July 1960.
108. K. L. S. Gunm and T. W. R. East “The microwave properties of precipitation particles,” Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., vol. 80, pp. 522–545, Oct. 1954.
109. D. Gibble, “Effects of rain on transmission performance of a satellite communication system,” in IEEE Int. Conv. Rec., part. 6, p. 52, 1964.
110. J. Ruze, “More on wet radomes,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat, vol. AP-13, p. 823, Sept. 1965.
111. I. Anderson, “Measurements of 20 GHz transmission through a wet radome,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-23, Sept. 1975.
112. B. G. Evans, A. J. Fryatt, J. Read, and P. T. Thompson “Investigation of the effects of precipitation on parabolic antennas employing linear orthogonal polarization at 11 GHz,” Electron. Lett., vol. 7, pp. 375–377, July 1971.
113. A. B. Crawford, D. C. Hogg, and L. E. Hunt “A horn-reflector antenna for space communication,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 40, pp. 1095–1116, July 1961.
114. C. Dragone and D. C. Hogg “The radiation pattern and impedance of offset and symmetrical near-field Cassegrainian and Gregorian antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-22, pp. 472–475, May 1974.
115. R. H. Turrin, “A multibeam satellite antenna for the 20 and 30 GHz radio bands,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., July–Aug. 1975.
116. C. Dragone “An improved antenna for microwave radio systems consisting of two cylindrical reflectors and a corrugated horn,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 53, pp. 1351–1379, Sept. 1974.
117. K. Funakawa and Y. Otsu, “Characteristics of the slant path rain attenuation at 35 GHz obtained by solar radiation and atmospheric emission observations,” in I.U.C.R.M. Colloquium Proc., pp. III 9-1–III 9-5, Oct. 1973.
118. J. E. Allnutt and J. E. Hall, “Site-diversity advantage for satellite communication at 11.6 GHz,” Electron. Lett., vol. 10, pp. 527–528, Dec. 12, 1974.
119. G. Brussard, “Rain-induced cross polarization and raindrop canting,” Electron. Lett., vol. 10, pp. 411–412, Oct. 3, 1974.