Natural Language Question-Answering Systems: 1969

Communications of the ACM

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 1970, Pages 15-30

  Simmons, Robert F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

artificial intelligence; fact retrieval; language processing; natural language; question answering system; semantics

Indexed keywords

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS; COMPUTERS; INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIE; LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS;

EID: 0014709914     PISSN: 00010782     EISSN: 15577317     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1145/361953.361963     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Abelson, R. P., and Carroll, J. D. Computer simulation of individual belief systems. Amer. Behav. Sci. 9 (May 1965), 24-30.
2. Abelson, R. P., and Carroll, J. D., and Reich, C. M. Implicational molecules: a method for extracting meaning from input sentences. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 641-647.
3. ALPAC (Automated Language Processing Advisory Committee). Language and machines—computers in translation and linguistics. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, D. C., 1966.
4. Becker, J. D. The modeling of simple analogic and inductive processes in a semantic memory system. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 655-668.
5. Black, F. S. A deductive question-answering system. Ph.D. Th., Harvard U., Cambridge, Mass., June 1964.
6. Bobrow, D. G. A question-answering system for high school algebra word problems. Pro. AFIPS 1964 Fall Joint Comput. Conf., Vol. 26, Pt. 1, Spartan Books, New York, pp. 591-614.
7. Bobrow, D. G., and Fraser, B. An augmented state transition network analysis procedure. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 557-567.
8. Bohnert, H. G., and Becker, P. O. Automatic English-to logic translation in a simplified model. AFOSR 66-1727 (AD-637 227), IBM Thomas J. Watson Res. Center, Yorktown Heights, N. Y., Mar. 1966.
9. Charniak, E. Computer solution of calculus word problems. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 303-316.
10. Chomsky, N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1965.
11. Colby, Kenneth M., and Enea, Horace. Heuristic methods for computer understanding of natural language in context-restricted on-line dialogues. Math. Biosciences 1 (1967), 1-25.
12. Colby, Kenneth M., and Enea, Horace. “Inductive Inference by Intelligent Machines.” Scientia, 103, 669-20 (Jan.-Feb. 1968).
13. Colby, Kenneth M., Enea, Horace, Tesler, L., and Enea, H. Experiments with a search algorithm for the data base of a human belief structure. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 649-654.
14. Colby, Kenneth M., Enea, Horace., Tesler, L., and Enea, H. and Smith, David C. Dialogues between humans and an artificial belief system. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 319-324.
15. Coles, L. Stephen. Talking with a robot in English. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 587-596.
16. Coles, L. Stephen. An on-line question-answering system with natural language and pictorial input. Proc. ACM 23rd Nat. Conf. 1968, Brandon Systems Press, Princeton, N. J., pp. 157-167.
17. Darlington, J. L. Machine methods for proving logical arguments expressed in English. Mech. Transl. Comput. Linguist. 8 (June-Oct. 1965), pp. 41-67.
18. Darlington, J. L. Theorem proving and information retrieval. In Machine Intelligence 4, Meitzer and Mitchie (Eds.) Edinburgh U. Press, Edinburgh, 1969, Ch. 11.
19. Darlington, J. L. Theorem provers as questions answerers. Unfolioed mss. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, abstract p. 317.
20. Earley, J. C. Generating a recognizer for a BNF grammar. Comp. Ctr. Rep., Carnegie-Mellon U., Pittsburgh, Pa., June 1965.
21. Elliott, R. W. A model for a fact retrieval system. Ph.D. Th., TNN-42, Computation Center, U. Texas, Austin, Tex., May 1965.
22. Ellis, Allan B., and Tiedeman, David V. Can a machine counsel? Proc. CEED-SSRC Conference on Computer-based Instruction, U. of Texas, Austin, Texas, Oct. 1968.
23. Feldman, Jerome, and Gries, David. Translator writing systems. Comm. ACM, 11, 2 (Feb. 1968), 77-113.
24. Fillmore, C. J. The case for Case. In Universals in Linguistic Theory. E. Bach and T. Harms (Eds), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.
25. Friedman, J. A computer system for transformational grammar. Comm. ACM 12, 6 (June 1969), 341-348.
26. Giuliano, V. E. Comments. Comm. ACM 8, 1 (Jan. 1965), 69-70.
27. Green, C. Cordell, and Raphael, Bertram. Research on intelligent question answering systems. Proc. ACM 23rd Nat. Conf., 1968, Brandon Systems Press, Princeton, N. J., pp. 169-181.
28. Green, C. Cordell, and Raphael, Bertram. Application of theorem proving to problem solving. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., pp. 219-239.
29. Hays, D. G. Introduction to Computational Linguistics. American Elsevier, New York, 1967.
30. Kasher, A. Data retrieval by computer: a critical survey. Hebrew U. of Jerusalem, Jan. 1966. Tech. Rep. No. 22 to Off. of Naval Res., Inf. Syst. Branch.
31. Katz, J. J. Recent issues in semantic theory. Foundations of Language 3 (1967), 124-194.
32. Kay, M. A Parsing program for computational grammars. RM-4283-PR, Rand Corp., Santa Monica, Calif., 1964.
33. Kellogg, Charles H. A natural language compiler for online data management. AFIPS Conference Proceedings, Vol. 33, Proc. AFIPS 1968 Fall Joint Comput. Conf. Vol. 33, Thompson Book Co., Washington, D. C., pp. 473-493.
34. Kirsch, R. A. Computer interpretation of English text and picture patterns. IEEE Trans. EC (Aug. 1964).
35. Klein, Sheldon, et al. The Autoling system. Tech. Rep. #43, Computer Sciences Dept., U. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisc., Sept. 1968.
36. Kochen, Manfred. Automatic question-answering of English-like questions about simple diagrams. J. ACM 16, 1 (Jan. 1969), 26-48.
37. Kuhn, Thomas S. Structure of Scientific Revolutions. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1962.
38. Levien, R. E., and Maron, M. E. Relational data file: a tool for mechanized inference execution and data retrieval. RM-4793-PR, Rand Corp., Santa Monica, Cal., Dec. 1965.
39. Levien, R. E., and Maron, M. E. Relational data file: experience with a system for propositional data storage and inference execution. RM-5947-PR, Rand Corp., Santa Monica, Calif., 1969.
40. McCarthy, J. Situations, actions and causal laws. Stanford Art. Intel. Proj., Memo 2, Stanford U., Stanford, Calif., 1963.
41. Minsky, M. Semantic Information Processing. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1969.
42. Newell, A., and Simon, H. A. GPS, a program that simulates human thought. In Computers and Thought, E. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman (Eds.), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
43. Olney, J., Revard, C., and Ziff, P. Toward the development of computational aids for obtaining a formal semantic description of English. SP2766/001, Syst. Develop. Corp., Santa Monica, Calif., Oct. 1968.
44. Petrick, S. A recognition procedure for transformational grammars. Ph.D. Th., Dep. of Modern Languages, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., June 1965.
45. Pople, H. E., Jr. A goal-oriented language for the computer. Ph.D. Th., Systems and Communication Science Dep., Carnegie-Mellon U., Pittsburgh, Pa., 1969.
46. Quillian, M. Ross. Semantic memory. Ph.D. Th., Carnegie-Mellon U., Pittsburgh, Pa., Feb. 1966.
47. Quillian, M. Ross. Word concepts: a theory and simulation of some basic semantic capabilities. Doc. SP-2199, Syst. Develop. Corp., Santa Monica, Calif., Sept. 15, 1965.
48. Quillian, M. Ross. Behav. Sci. 12, (Sept. 1967), 410-430.
49. Quillian, M. Ross. The teachable language comprehender. Bolt Baranek & Newman, Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 1969, in preparation.
50. Quillian, M. Ross. The teachable language comprehender. Comm. ACM 12, 8 (Aug. 1969), 459-476.
51. Raphael, B. SIR: a computer program for semantic information retrieval. Ph.D. Th., Math. Dep., MIT., Cambridge, Mass., June 1964.
52. Raphael, B. In Proc. AFIPS 1964 Fall Joint Comput. Conf. Vol. 26, Pt. 1, Spartan Books, New York, pp. 577-589.
53. Robinson, J. A. A review of automatic theorem proving. Proc. of Symposia in Applied Math, Vol. 19, AMS, Providence, R. I., 1967, pp. 1-18.
54. Robinson, J. A. The present state of mechanical theorem proving. Fourth System Symposium, Cleveland, O., Nov. 19-20, 1968, in preparation.
55. Rosenbaum, Peter. A grammar base question answering procedure. Comm. ACM 10, 10 (Oct. 1967), 630-635.
56. Rosenbaum, Peter. English grammar II. Res. paper RC 2070, IBM Thomas J. Watson Res. Cent., Yorktown Heights, N.Y., Apr. 1968.
57. Salton, Gerard. Automatic Information Organization and Retrieval. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
58. Savitt, D. A., Love, H. H., and Troop, R. E. Association-storing processor study. Tech. Rep. RADC-TR-66-174, Rome Air Develop. Center, Rome, N. Y., June 1966.
59. Schank, Roger C. Outline of a conceptual semantics for generation of coherent discourse. TRACOR-68-462-U, Tracor Inc., Austin, Tex., Mar. 1968.
60. Schank, Roger C., and Tesler, L. G. A conceptual parser for natural language. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 569-578.
61. Schwarcz, R. M. Steps toward a model of linguistic performance: a preliminary sketch. RM-5214-PR, The Rand Corp., Santa Monica, Calif., Jan. 1967.
62. Schwarcz, R. M., Burger, J. F., and Simmons, R. F. A deductive logic for answering English questions. Syst. Develop. Corp., Dec. 1968, in preparation.
63. Schwarcz, R. M., Burger, J. F., and Simmons, R. F. Towards a computational formalization of natural language semantics. Proc. Int. Conf. on Comp. Ling., held in Sweden, Sept. 1969, in preparation.
64. Shapiro, S. C., and Woodmansee, G. H. A net structure based relational question answerer: description and examples. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 325-345.
65. Simmons, Robert F., Klein, S., and McConlogue, K. Indexing and dependency logic for answering English questions. Amer. Doc. 15, 3 (1964), 196-204.
66. Simmons, Robert F., Klein, S., and McConlogue, K. Answering English questions by computer: a survey. Comm. ACM 8, 1 (Jan. 1965), 53-70.
67. Simmons, Robert F., Klein, S., and McConlogue, K. Linguistic analysis of constructed responses in CAI. TNN-68, Comput. Center, U. Texas, Austin, Tex., Oct. 1968.
68. Simmons, Robert F., Klein, S., and McConlogue, K., Burger, J. F., and Schwarcz, R. M. A computational model of verbal understanding. Proc. AFIPS 1968 Fall Joint Comput. Conf., Vol. 33, Thompson Book Co., Washington, D. C., pp. 441-456.
69. Slagle, J. R. Experiments with a deductive question-answering program. Comm. ACM 8, 12 (Dec. 1965), 792-798.
70. Sparck-Jones, K. Experiments in semantic classification. Mech. Transl. Comput. Linguist. 8, 3 & 4 (1965), 97-112.
71. Taylor, Edwin F. (Ed.) ELIZA: a skimmable report on the ELIZA conversational tutoring system. Educational Res. Center, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 1968.
72. Tesler, Lawrence, Enea, H., and Colby, K. M. A directed graph representation for computer simulation of belief systems. Math. Biosciences 21, 2 (Feb. 1968).
73. Tharp, A. L., and Krulee, G. K. Using relational operators to structure long-term memory. Proc. Int. Jt. Conf. Art. Intel., Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 579-586.
74. Thompson, F. B., et al. DEACON breadboard summary. RM64TMP-9, TIEMPO, General Electric, Santa Barbara, Calif., Mar. 1964.
75. Thompson, F. B., English for the computer. Proc. AFIPS 1966 Fall Joint Comput. Conf., Vol. 29, Spartan Books, New York, pp. 349-356.
76. Thorne, J. P., Bratley, P., and Dewar, H. The syntactic analysis of English by machine. In Machine Intelligence 3, D. Michie (Ed.), American Elsevier, New York, 1968.
77. Weizenbaum, J. ELIZA—a computer program for the study of natural language communications between man and machine. Comm. ACM 9, 1 (Jan. 1966), 36-45.
78. Wilks, Yorick. Computable semantic derivations. SP 3017, Syst. Develop. Corp., Santa Monica, Calif., Jan. 1968.
79. Woods, William A. Semantic interpretation of English questions on a structured data base. Mathematical linguistics and automatic translation, Rep. NSF-17, 1967, Comput. Lab., Harvard U., Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 1966.
80. Woods, William A. Procedural semantics for a question-answering machine. Proc. AFIPS 1968 Fall Joint Comput. Conf., vol. 33, Thompson Book Co., Washington, D. C., pp. 457-471.
81. Yngve, V. H. A framework for syntactic translation. Mech. Transl. Comput. Linguist. 4 (Dec. 1957), pp. 444-466.