Putting globalisation in its place: Globalisation, liberalisation and export-orientated aquaculure in West Bengal and Bangladesh

South Asia

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 159-184

  Pokrant, Bob ^a   Reeves, Peter ^b  

^a CURTIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0012842646     PISSN: 00856401     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00856400108723428     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. R. L. Naylor, et al. recently argued that increased shrimp and salmon culture production as a means to ease the burden on wild fish stocks is having a contrary effect. Wild fish continue to be fed to culture fish as fishmeal and effluents from coastal fish farms cause pollution of marine environments and reductions in wild fish stocks. The report goes on to say it is carp, oyster and mussel production that is less damaging than shrimp and salmon. R. L. Naylor, (et al) ’Nature’s subsidies to shrimp and salmon farming’, Science, Vol. 282, no. 30 (1998), pp. 883-4. Critics of shrimp production in India and Bangladesh make the same criticisms, as discussed later in the paper.
2. Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), ’Review of the state of world aquaculture’, Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service, Fishery Resources Division FAO Fisheries Circular, no. 886, rev. 1 (Rome, FAO (1997).
3. R Subasinghe, ’Regional Reviews: South Asia’, FAO, Review of the state of world aquaculture (1997).
4. E Laureti (comp), ’Fish and fishery products: world apparent consumption statistics based on food balance sheets (1961-1993)’, FAO Fisheries Circular no. 821, rev. 3 (Rome, FAO, 1996), p. 235.
5. The terms ’shrimp’ and ’prawn’ will be used interchangeably in this paper. Technically speaking, shrimp refer to smaller species of prawn. At the 1955 Prawn symposium of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council held in Tokyo, it was decided to use the word ’prawn’ to refer to the Penaeids, Pandalids and Palemonids and ’shrimp’ to refer to smaller species of other families. C. V. Kurien and V. O. Sebastian (Delhi, Hindustan Publishing Corporation, 1986).
6. N. Munthe (1986), Brackishwater Aquaculture in Orissa (Gothenburg, Swedish International Development Authority, 1986), p. 9. Munthe’s report was prepared in collaboration with the Bay of Bengal Project as part of its Small-Scale Fisheries Development Project. Some of earliest corporate groups which entered the field also came with a background in marine, export-oriented prawn fisheries, see Nagesh Rao and Raju Bist, Tata Aquatic: caught in a bind’, Business India (15-28 Oct. 1990), p. 84, which discusses the linkages between Tata Aquatic project in Orissa and the Tatas’ subsidiary, International Fisheries Ltd, ’one of the pioneering Indian firms in the field of shrimp exports since the mid-sixties’.
7. N. Munthe (1986), Brackishwater Aquaculture in Orissa (Gothenburg, Swedish International Development Authority, 1986), p. 9. Munthe’s report was prepared in collaboration with the Bay of Bengal Project as part of its Small-Scale Fisheries Development Project. Some of earliest corporate groups which entered the field also came with a background in marine, export-oriented prawn fisheries, see Nagesh Rao and Raju Bist, ’Tata Aquatic: caught in a bind’, Business India (15-28 Oct. 1990), p. 84, which discusses the linkages between Tata Aquatic project in Orissa and the Tatas’ subsidiary, International Fisheries Ltd, ’one of the pioneering Indian firms in the field of shrimp exports since the mid-sixties’.
8. Munthe, Brackishwater Aquaculture, p. 9.
9. Rao and Bist, ’Tata Aquatic’, p. 84.
10. Mukul, ’Aquaculture boom: who pays?’, Economic and Political Weekly (EPW), Vol. 29, no. 49 (1994), p. 3075.
11. ’Case for regulation’, Economic Times, 15 Feb. 1997, p. 4 (editorial). The point was picked up by Asha Krishnakumar in her 21 Feb. article, ’Large-scale closures’, Frontline, p. 82. S. Krishna Kumar, Central Minister for Unconventional Energy and Agriculture, said at INDAQUA ’95 held in Madras in Jan. 1995, that the government would offer aquaculture the same incentives as agriculture: subsidised electricity, easily available credit and income tax exemption. He argued that aquaculture ’had created substantial employment opportunities while it revolutionised the rural economies of Andhra and Tamil Nadu in particular. He said that aquaculture, therefore, had been identified as a prime target among all thrust areas. To ensure the growth of aquaculture, the government had decided that it shall remove all obstacles being faced by shrimp farmers.’ Economic Times (Calcutta, 25 Jan. 1995), p. 5.
12. ’Case for regulation’, Economic Times, 15 Feb. 1997, p. 4 (editorial). The point was picked up by Asha Krishnakumar in her 21 Feb. article, ’Large-scale closures’, Frontline, p. 82. S. Krishna Kumar, Central Minister for Unconventional Energy and Agriculture, said at INDAQUA ’95 held in Madras in Jan. 1995, that the government would offer aquaculture the same incentives as agriculture: subsidised electricity, easily available credit and income tax exemption. He argued that aquaculture ’had created substantial employment opportunities while it revolutionised the rural economies of Andhra and Tamil Nadu in particular. He said that aquaculture, therefore, had been identified as a prime target among all thrust areas. To ensure the growth of aquaculture, the government had decided that it shall remove all obstacles being faced by shrimp farmers.’ Economic Times (Calcutta, 25 Jan. 1995), p. 5.
13. ’Case for regulation’, Economic Times, 15 Feb. 1997, p. 4 (editorial). The point was picked up by Asha Krishnakumar in her 21 Feb. article, ’Large-scale closures’, Frontline, p. 82. S. Krishna Kumar, Central Minister for Unconventional Energy and Agriculture, said at INDAQUA ’95 held in Madras in Jan. 1995, that the government would offer aquaculture the same incentives as agriculture: subsidised electricity, easily available credit and income tax exemption. He argued that aquaculture ’had created substantial employment opportunities while it revolutionised the rural economies of Andhra and Tamil Nadu in particular. He said that aquaculture, therefore, had been identified as a prime target among all thrust areas. To ensure the growth of aquaculture, the government had decided that it shall remove all obstacles being faced by shrimp farmers.’ Economic Times (Calcutta, 25 Jan. 1995), p. 5.
14. Over 1990-94, writes Nirupana Subramaniam, prawn culture ’transformed coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu as first time entrepreneurs and corporate groups rushed to remote coastal villages to start aquaculture farms. Free of regulation and boosted by its inherent profitability’, ’The blue revolution turns grey’, India Today (31 Oct. 1994), p. 70.
15. Frontline (29 Mar. 1997), p. 26.
16. Ibid. Tamil Nadu set up its Brackishwater Fish Farms Development Authority in 1991 and offered subsidies. Aquaculture in the state increased from 250 hectares in 1990-91 to 2000 hectares in 1994-95; production increased from 450 tonnes to 3000 tonnes; Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
17. Ibid. Tamil Nadu set up its Brackishwater Fish Farms Development Authority in 1991 and offered subsidies. Aquaculture in the state increased from 250 hectares in 1990-91 to 2000 hectares in 1994-95; production increased from 450 tonnes to 3000 tonnes; Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
18. Nityanand Jayaram, ’Big Fry vs. Small Fry. Booming shrimp-farming business spawns protest’, Far Eastern Economic Review (12 Jan. 1995), p. 77.
19. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld, (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97; see Asha Krishnakumar, ’Large-scale closures. Supreme Court restrictions on farms’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 82.
20. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld, (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97; see Asha Krishnakumar, ’Large-scale closures. Supreme Court restrictions on farms’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 82.
21. Rank Aqua was identified as the ’biggest in the industry’ by Nirupana Subramaniam, ’Blue revolution turns grey’, India Today (31 Oct. 1994), p. 70.
22. Mukul, ’Aquaculture boom: who pays?’, p. 3075.
23. ’EEC major buyer of Indian seafood’, Amrita Bazar Patrika (4 Jan. 1994), p. 12.
24. Asha Krishnakumar, ’Large-scale closures. Supreme Court restrictions on farms’, Frontline (21 Feb 1997), p. 2.
25. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
26. Ibid.; Krishnakumar, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 82.
27. Ibid.; Krishnakumar, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 82.
28. Nirupana Subramaniam, ’Blue revolution turns grey’, India Today (Oct. 1994), pp. 70-1. See also, Nityanand Jayaram, ’Big fry vs. small fry’, Far Eastern Economic Review (12 Jan. 1995), p. 77.
29. Nirupana Subramaniam, ’Blue revolution turns grey’, India Today (Oct. 1994), pp. 70-1. See also, Nityanand Jayaram, ’Big fry vs. small fry’, Far Eastern Economic Review (12 Jan. 1995), p. 77.
30. Mukul, ’Aquaculture boom: who pays?’, EPW, Vol. 29, no. 49 (1994), pp. 3075-6, 3078; a similar list - conversion of agricultural land, soil degradation, salination of soil and groundwater, depletion of freshwater stocks and environmental pollution - is given in Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
31. Mukul, ’Aquaculture boom: who pays?’, EPW, Vol. 29, no. 49 (1994), pp. 3075-6, 3078; a similar list - conversion of agricultural land, soil degradation, salination of soil and groundwater, depletion of freshwater stocks and environmental pollution - is given in Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
32. ’Aquavultures’, Business India (13-26 Jan. 1997), p. 11.
33. Far Eastern Economic Review (12 Jan. 1995), p. 77; ’Blue revolution in a green belt’, EPW, Vol. 30, no. 12 (25 Mar. 1995), p. 607.
34. Far Eastern Economic Review (12 Jan. 1995), p. 77; ’Blue revolution in a green belt’, EPW, Vol. 30, no. 12 (25 Mar. 1995), p. 607.
35. Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
36. Ibid.
37. ’Blue Revolution in Green Belt’, EPW (Mar. 1995), p. 608.
38. Ibid.
39. Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81; Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96.
40. Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81; Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96.
41. Ibid; the legislation referred to was the Tamilnadu Aquaculture (Regulation) Act 1995.
42. Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81; Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96.
43. Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81; Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96.
44. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96; the CRZ notification was made under the Government of India’s Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
45. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96; the CRZ notification was made under the Government of India’s Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, Asha Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
46. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 96.
47. Ibid, p. 97.
48. Ibid, p. 96; Dr M. Sakhthivel, president of the Aquaculture Foundation of India, called for the decision to be clarified at a week-long meeting on aquaculture organised by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and AFI in Vijayawada, Business Age (25 Jan. 1997), p. 19.
49. Ibid, p. 96; Dr M. Sakhthivel, president of the Aquaculture Foundation of India, called for the decision to be clarified at a week-long meeting on aquaculture organised by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and AFI in Vijayawada, Business Age (25 Jan. 1997), p. 19.
50. ’Death of an industry’, Outlook (19 Feb. 1997), p. 43. The association of smaller aquafarmers, the Aqua Farmers Association of India, filed 27 review petitions, Business Telegraph (4 Feb. 1997), p. 15; four State governments and the MPEDA also lodged petitions, Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
51. ’Death of an industry’, Outlook (19 Feb. 1997), p. 43. The association of smaller aquafarmers, the Aqua Farmers Association of India, filed 27 review petitions, Business Telegraph (4 Feb. 1997), p. 15; four State governments and the MPEDA also lodged petitions, Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
52. ’Death of an industry’, Outlook (19 Feb. 1997), p. 43. The association of smaller aquafarmers, the Aqua Farmers Association of India, filed 27 review petitions, Business Telegraph (4 Feb. 1997), p. 15; four State governments and the MPEDA also lodged petitions, Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
53. ’Farms in deep water’, India Today (31 Jan. 1997), p. 113.
54. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
55. Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
56. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
57. Interviews with local freshwater prawn producers in Medinipur, West Bengal, Feb. 1997.
58. Krishnakumar, ’Unregulated growth in Tamil Nadu’, Frontline (21 Feb. 1997), p. 81.
59. Latha Jishnu, ’Prawn farms up the creek’, Businessworld (22-31 Jan. 1997), p. 97.
60. Statesman (15 Feb. 97), p. 11; Telegraph (15 Feb. 1997), p. 17.
61. Statesman (15 Feb. 97), p. 11; Telegraph (15 Feb. 1997), p. 17.
62. Jasper Goss, ’Conflict and resistance in Indian shrimp aquaculture’, EPW (21 Feb. 1998), p. 384.
63. Statesman (15 Feb. 1997), p. 11.
64. Business Standard (23 Mar. 1999), p.2.
65. ’Net bill, gross disaster’, Down to Earth, (15 Feb. 2001), p. 22.
66. Environmental activists have joined with displaced farmers and fishers in the National Action Committee Against Coastal Industrial Aquaculture (NACACIA). Writing in the Hindu of 24 Aug. 1997, one of the leaders of this coalition of peasant, fisher and environmentalist interests, Vandana Shiva, took the opportunity of the 50th year of independence from colonial rule to link nationalist aspirations to the improvement of the ecological and social conditions of the marginalised coastal peoples. She wrote: Throughout the coastal states of India-West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra - coastal communities celebrated August 15, differently from the official India with its empty rhetoric and the radical India with its negativity of Black Flag demonstrations against the failures of the last 50 years. Under the leadership of National Action Committee Against Coastal Industrial Aquaculture (NACACIA), coastal communities marched to shrimp farms which were banned by the historic order by the Supreme Court on December 11, 1996 but have continued to operate in total contempt of the court orders. They proudly carried the Indian tri-colour flag and sang the National Song ’Vande Mataram’. From the coast of India a new meaning is being given to freedom both for the people and the country. For the victims of the aquaculture industry, Independence Day was a day for celebrating and asserting their sovereignty over their natural resources and their freedom to engage in their livelihoods. It was a day for re-committing themselves to continue their struggle to free the coast of the destructive aquaculture industry. It was a day for condemning the attempts by the government, politicians and the industrialists to subvert the Supreme Court judgment, which has defended their rights and their coast. Shiva describes economic liberalisation as a shift from the ’licence- permit raj’ to the ’licence to loot and the permit to plunder raj’ and calls for a second freedom struggle to free the margins.
67. Vandana Shiva, in Hindu (24 Aug. 1997).
68. According to a recent report in the Economic Times of India, the majority of shrimp farms are small with fifty two per cent 2 hectares. or below and twenty nine per cent 2 to 5 hectares. Only twelve per cent were between 5 and 10 hectares and seven per cent 10 hectares and above. The author of the report, a pioneer in the promotion of aquaculture in Kerala in the 1970s, launched a strong attack against Vandana Shiva’s latest book on coastal aquaculture, arguing that her claims of environmental destruction and domination by larger business interests are exaggerated and misleading. He goes on to say that it is traditional methods of production promoted by Shiva and other environmentalists that are holding back a proper development of the sector. K. K. Chandran, ’India: The Contribution Of Little Shrimps’ Economic Times (3 May 1999).
69. Malabika Bhattacharya, ’Catch in the project’, Hindu (international ed., 23 July 1994), p. 9.
70. Ibid.
71. Written reply to schedule of questions submitted to the Minister, Feb. 1997.
72. Ibid.
73. Statesman (26 May 1999). ’Nanda wants World Bank adviser out’.
74. Bangladesh Frozen Food Exporters Association, Oct. 2000.
75. S. Huq, and K. Mainuddin, ’Sustainable trade in leather, garments and shrimp of Bangladesh’, Final report for the International Institute for Environment and Development, UK (Dhaka, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies, 31 May 1999).
76. Ghers are enclosures in which shrimp are raised.
77. M. Karim, ’Strategies for increased production of shrimp on a sustainable basis’. Paper presented at the Workshop on Shrimp Industry in Bangladesh, Bangladesh Frozen Foods Exporters Association/ Export Promotion Bureau and the USAID funded Agrobased Industries and Technologies Development Project, Hotel Sonargaon, 26 June 1999, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
78. One example of a project aimed at reducing the negative impact of shrimp farming was the 1987-1990 Shrimp Culture Project initiated in the Khulna area by the World Bank and the Government of Bangladesh. The project showed that local farmers were the major beneficiaries of the project, paddy yields and combined paddy and shrimp yields increased. Shrimp Culture Project I.D.A., ’Monitoring and evaluation of shrimp culture impact in polder 20 and 20/1’, Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, March, 1990.
79. Food security is said to be declining as key local sources of protein such as shrimp and high valued fish are exported and local peoples are being forced to purchase more of their daily nutrients where once they were derived from local networks of production and exchange. For example, reports from selected moujas in Sandeshkhali in 24-Parganas in the West Bengal Sundarbans indicate nutritional deficits among people living in aqua farming areas. In one mouja some 98 per cent of all land is under prawn cultivation whereas in the past prawn were grown with various fish species While such deficits are the result of various causes, one contributory cause is the shift to monoculture shrimp production which has reduced supplies of other fish and aquatic resources as well as reduced land area for rice and lentil farming. ’Dangerous business: Prawn farms threaten the Sunderban ecosystem’, Frontline (14-20 Aug. 1994), p. 39.
80. Police repression against landless fisherfolk in the Satkhira District of Bangladesh, Bangladesh People’s Solidarity Centre, Amsterdam (19 Aug. 1998).
81. The Independent (1 July, 1998), p. 39.
82. Centre for Policy Dialogue, ’CPD-UNEP/UNCTAD workshop on assessment of environmental impact of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) in Bangladesh’. Report of CPD dialogue held at Khulna on the theme of export-oriented shrimp culture in Bangladesh and the issue of sustainable development’, Centre for Policy Dialogue, May, Dhaka, 1998.
83. Interviews with Caritas NGO workers in Khulna (Feb. 1997).
84. The Independent (13 July 1998), p. 54.
85. The Independent (8 Oct. 1998), p. 16.
86. At a July 1999 Bangladesh Frozen Food Exporters’ Association workshop held in Dhaka, one of the keynote speakers argued strongly for greater vertical integration of the industry. This position was supported by a discussant who was an American aquaculture expert. New European Union regulations are forcing some aspects of production such as prawn beheading and shelling to be integrated into processing plant activities to avoid contamination from open air operations. (Interview with the chairman of one of the largest frozen food processors in Bangladesh. 21 June 1999, Dhaka.).
87. A. Begum and S. M. Nazmul Alam, Social aspects of coastal shrimp aquaculture in Bangladesh: case study 1 (Caritas, Bangladesh, July 2000). M. Maniruzzaman, Intrusion of commercial shrimp farming in three rice-growing villages of Southern Bangladesh: its effects on poverty, environment and selected aspects of culture. (PhD thesis, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, 1998).
88. A. Begum and S. M. Nazmul Alam, Social aspects of coastal shrimp aquaculture in Bangladesh: case study 1 (Caritas, Bangladesh, July 2000). M. Maniruzzaman, Intrusion of commercial shrimp farming in three rice-growing villages of Southern Bangladesh: its effects on poverty, environment and selected aspects of culture. (PhD thesis, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, 1998).
89. D. Held, D, A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt and J. Perraton, Global transformations: Politics, economics and culture (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 16.
90. A. Giddens, The consequences of modernity (Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990).
91. A Hoogvelt, Globalisation and the postcolonial world (London, Macmillan, 1997), p. 122.
92. The larger fish and prawn processing companies employ high-paid engineers to manage plant technologies. Some plants have taken on the appearance of surgical wards with elaborate hygiene controls. A recent workshop in Dhaka called for a greater cooperative effort between microbiologists and processors to increase export earnings through ensuring microbiological quality of the product. ’Microbiological quality control can double frozen food export’, Daily Star (22 June, 1999). At a one-day workshop organised by the Bangladesh Frozen Food Exporters’ Association in July 1999, the central themes running through the proceedings were quality control and increased production.
93. J. Scott, Seeing like the state (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 33536.
94. G. Gereffi, ’Global production systems and third world development’, in B. Stallings (ed.), Global change, regional response: The new international context of development (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 113.
95. The Independent (30 Sept. 1998), pp. 35-7.
96. More recently, discovery of contaminated shrimp consignments in Europe led to new threats of a ban on Bangladesh shrimp. Bangladesh Frozen Foods Export Association, (Oct. 2000).
97. S. Immerfall (ed.), Territory in the globalizing society: One place or none? (Berlin, Springer, 1998), p. 174.
98. A. Gupta and J. Ferguson (eds), Culture, power, place: Explorations in critical Anthropology (London, Duke University Press, 1997a).
99. For discussion of the concept of discourse and its application within the anthropology of development, see A. Escobar, Encountering development: The making and unmaking of the third world (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1995); R. Grillo and R. Stirrat (eds), Discourse of development: Anthropological perspectives (Oxford, Berg, 1997).
100. For discussion of the concept of discourse and its application within the anthropology of development, see A. Escobar, Encountering development: The making and unmaking of the third world (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1995); R. Grillo and R. Stirrat (eds), Discourse of development: Anthropological perspectives (Oxford, Berg, 1997).
101. th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, 8-12 Sept., 1998, Charles University, Prague. Panel 11: Decision-making and the local level: ’local people’ and the creation of development.
102. Immerfall, op. cit., p. 175.
103. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to- access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation
104. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to- access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation
105. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to- access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation
106. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to-access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation
107. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to- access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation
108. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to- access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation
109. In the case of Bangladesh, there has been no comprehensive examination of these issues. The three main published studies so far of coastal aquaculture concentrate upon the Khulna area and only one of these deals exclusively with prawn production. See M. Alauddin and C. A. Tisdell, The environment and economic development in South Asia: An overview concentrating on Banglades (London, Macmillan Press; New York, St Martin’s Press, Inc, 1998); A. K. Datta, Land and labour relations in Southwest Banglades. (Institute for Social Studies, the Hague, Netherlands, 1998); J. Guimaraes, ’Shrimp culture and market incorporation: A study of shrimp culture in paddy fields in Southwest Bangladesh’, Development and Change, Vol. 20, (1989), pp. 653-82. Several other studies are contained in unpublished and often difficult-to- access reports. These include N. U. Ahmed, M. Hossain and R. C. K. Banik, ’A study of brackishwater shrimp culture with particular reference to land-use pattern’, Institutional Strengthening in the Fisheries Sector, Bangladesh, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh, UNDP, FAO, (1992); Y. Ali, ’Issues and priorities of integrated coastal zone management focusing on shrimp farming’, paper presented at the workshop on Integrated coastal zone management in the Bay of Bengal: National capacity building for Bangladesh, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), Dhaka and the Oceans Institute of Canada (OIC), Dhaka, (20-21 Jan., 1997); A. Rahman, M. A. Islam, I. Roy, L Azad and K. S. Islam, Shrimp culture and environment in the coastal region (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 1995); UBINIG, ’The state of shrimp fry collectors: Social, economic and organisational possibilities: A study on the conditions of shrimp fry collectors in Cox’s Bazar/Chakaria area and Satkhira/Khulna area’, Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras (1987). These studies provide statistically based overviews of prawn farming or some ethnographic description of prawn production and the peoples involved based on relatively short periods of fieldwork and investigation. None address theoretically the relationship between export-oriented aquaculture and globalisation