The Dynamics and Progress of Competitive Liberalization in China

Issues and Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 8, 1996, Pages 1-25

  Yang, Dali L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Central local relations; China; Competitive liberalization; Decentralization; Political economy; Regional cleavages

Indexed keywords

EID: 0012738448     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Since the Great Leap Forward, several waves of decentralization in the fiscal and administrative systems have stimulated local enthusiasm and initiative. For general discussions, see Audrey Donnithorne, "Center-Provincial Economic Relations in China," Contemporary China Papers, no. 16 (Canberra: Contemporary China Center, Australian National University, 1981); Michel Oksenberg and James Tong, "The Evolution of Central-Provincial Fiscal Relations in China, 1971-1984: The Formal System," The China Quarterly, no. 125 (March 1991): 1-32; Dangdai Zhongguo caizheng (Contemporary China's finance) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1988).
2. Since the Great Leap Forward, several waves of decentralization in the fiscal and administrative systems have stimulated local enthusiasm and initiative. For general discussions, see Audrey Donnithorne, "Center-Provincial Economic Relations in China," Contemporary China Papers, no. 16 (Canberra: Contemporary China Center, Australian National University, 1981); Michel Oksenberg and James Tong, "The Evolution of Central-Provincial Fiscal Relations in China, 1971-1984: The Formal System," The China Quarterly, no. 125 (March 1991): 1-32; Dangdai Zhongguo caizheng (Contemporary China's finance) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1988).
3. Since the Great Leap Forward, several waves of decentralization in the fiscal and administrative systems have stimulated local enthusiasm and initiative. For general discussions, see Audrey Donnithorne, "Center-Provincial Economic Relations in China," Contemporary China Papers, no. 16 (Canberra: Contemporary China Center, Australian National University, 1981); Michel Oksenberg and James Tong, "The Evolution of Central-Provincial Fiscal Relations in China, 1971-1984: The Formal System," The China Quarterly, no. 125 (March 1991): 1-32; Dangdai Zhongguo caizheng (Contemporary China's finance) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1988).
4. David Granick, Chinese State Enterprises: A Regional Property Rights Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
5. Thrainn Eggertsson, Economic Behavior and Institutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 40-45.
6. It must be pointed out that local cadres may have mixed motives for pursuing certain policies, including economic growth. Local cadres may want to win promotions, but as local resources have expanded, officials in prosperous areas have few incentives to move to the center and become a functionary. See William Byrd and Alan Gelb, "Why industrialize? The Incentives for Rural Community Governments," in China's Rural Industry: Structure, Development, and Reform, ed. William Byrd and Lin Qingsong (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 358-87.
7. Christine Wong, "Central-Local Relations in an Era of Fiscal Decline: The Paradox of Fiscal Decentralization in Post-Mao China," The China Quarterly, no. 128 (December 1991): 691-715.
8. Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
9. Jean C. Oi, "Fiscal Reform and the Economic Foundations of Local State Corporatism in China," World Politics 45, no. 1 (October 1992): 99-126.
10. See Albert Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958); Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1957); Harry Richardson and Peter Tonwroe, "Regional Policies in Developing Countries," in Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, ed. P. Nijkamp (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1986), 647-78; Paul Krugman, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography," Journal of Political Economy 99 (1991): 183-99; Paul Krugman, "On the Number and Location of Cities," European Economic Review 37 (1993): 293-98.
11. See Albert Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958); Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1957); Harry Richardson and Peter Tonwroe, "Regional Policies in Developing Countries," in Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, ed. P. Nijkamp (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1986), 647-78; Paul Krugman, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography," Journal of Political Economy 99 (1991): 183-99; Paul Krugman, "On the Number and Location of Cities," European Economic Review 37 (1993): 293-98.
12. See Albert Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958); Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1957); Harry Richardson and Peter Tonwroe, "Regional Policies in Developing Countries," in Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, ed. P. Nijkamp (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1986), 647-78; Paul Krugman, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography," Journal of Political Economy 99 (1991): 183-99; Paul Krugman, "On the Number and Location of Cities," European Economic Review 37 (1993): 293-98.
13. See Albert Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958); Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1957); Harry Richardson and Peter Tonwroe, "Regional Policies in Developing Countries," in Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, ed. P. Nijkamp (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1986), 647-78; Paul Krugman, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography," Journal of Political Economy 99 (1991): 183-99; Paul Krugman, "On the Number and Location of Cities," European Economic Review 37 (1993): 293-98.
14. See Albert Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958); Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Under-developed Regions (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1957); Harry Richardson and Peter Tonwroe, "Regional Policies in Developing Countries," in Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, ed. P. Nijkamp (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1986), 647-78; Paul Krugman, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography," Journal of Political Economy 99 (1991): 183-99; Paul Krugman, "On the Number and Location of Cities," European Economic Review 37 (1993): 293-98.
15. I elaborate on this theme in Dali Yang, "Policy Credibility and Macroeconomic Control in China" (Paper delivered at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, The Washington Hilton, September 2-5, 1993); Jude Howell points to the spiral nature of China's open policy. See Jude Howell, China Opens Its Doors: The Politics of Economic Transition (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1993).
16. I elaborate on this theme in Dali Yang, "Policy Credibility and Macroeconomic Control in China" (Paper delivered at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, The Washington Hilton, September 2-5, 1993); Jude Howell points to the spiral nature of China's open policy. See Jude Howell, China Opens Its Doors: The Politics of Economic Transition (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1993).
17. Ruan Ming, Lishi zhuanzhedian shang de Hu Yaobang (Hu Yaobang at a historical turning point) (River Ridge, N.J.: Global Publishing, 1991), 58.
18. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan jihua dashiji jiyao (1949-1985) (A summary chronology of major events in PRC national economic and social development planning, 1949-85) (Beijing: Hongqi chubanshe, 1987), 449.
19. Chen Yun, "Several Important Principles in Economic Construction," in Chen Yun wenxuan (1956-1985) (Selected works of Chen Yun, 1956-1985) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1985), 275-77.
20. Shenzhenshi dang'anguan, Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji (A chronology of major events in Shenzhen, 1979-89) (Shenzhen: Haitian chubanshe, 1991).
21. For contemporary criticisms of the SEZs, see Thomas Chan, E. K. Y. Chen, and Steve Chin, "China's Special Economic Zones: Ideology, Policy, and Practice," in China's Special Economic Zones: Policies, Problems and Prospects, ed. Y. C. Jao and C. K. Leung (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 95-98; George T. Crane, The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1990), 35-40.
22. For contemporary criticisms of the SEZs, see Thomas Chan, E. K. Y. Chen, and Steve Chin, "China's Special Economic Zones: Ideology, Policy, and Practice," in China's Special Economic Zones: Policies, Problems and Prospects, ed. Y. C. Jao and C. K. Leung (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 95-98; George T. Crane, The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1990), 35-40.
23. Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji, 36.
24. Shortly after Hu's visit, joint ventures that were previously required to export all output were given permission to sell some products within China. Other changes followed.
25. It should be pointed out here that the opening of special zones in other parts of the country did not lead to terminations of the earlier cooperative arrangements for two reasons. First, the four SEZs still had more liberal business environments. Second, most cooperative ventures had likely become accustomed to doing business in the zones and it was costly to relocate. For a useful discussion of the many advantages Shenzhen possessed as an extension of Hong Kong, see Ezra Vogel, One Step Ahead in China: Guangdong Under Reform (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 148-49.
26. Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji, 59.
27. Liu Zhigeng, Fazhan, kaifang, gaige: Shenzhen jingji fazhan huigu yu qianzhan (Development, opening up, and reform: A review of Shenzhen's economic development and its prospects) (Shenzhen: Haitian chubanshe, 1991), 199.
28. Robert Kleinberg, China's "Opening" to the Outside World: The Experiment with Foreign Capitalism (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990), 74-75.
29. Ibid., 71-96; Crane, The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones.
30. Ibid., 71-96; Crane, The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones.
31. Crane, The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones, 88.
32. Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji, 50.
33. Ibid., 169, 174; Li Hao, "Expand Internal and External Cooperation and Raise the Level of Special Zone Construction," People's Daily, April 30, 1986.
34. Ibid., 169, 174; Li Hao, "Expand Internal and External Cooperation and Raise the Level of Special Zone Construction," People's Daily, April 30, 1986.
35. Liu, Fazhan, kaifang, gaige, 200.
36. Ibid., 200-201.
37. Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji, 217-18.
38. Vogel, One Step Ahead in China, 142.
39. Chen Yun, "Strengthen and Improve Economic Planning Work," in Chen Yun wenxuan (1956-1985), 280.
40. Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji.
41. Dali Yang, "China Adjusts to the World Economy: The Political Economy of China's Coastal Development Strategy," Pacific Affairs 64, no. 1 (March 1991): 42-64.
42. Crane, The Political Economy of China's Special Economic Zones, 39.
43. Susan Shirk, How China Opened Its Door: The Political Success of the PRC's Foreign Trade and Investment Reforms (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1994), 39.
44. Lynn T. White, Shanghai Shanghaied? Uneven Taxes in Reform China (Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Center for Asian Studies, 1989).
45. Jingji ribao (Economic Daily), June 3, 1985, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Daily Report: China [hereafter cited as FBIS-CHI]-85-113 (June 12, 1985): K5-6.
46. Jingji ribao (Economic Daily), June 3, 1985, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Daily Report: China [hereafter cited as FBIS-CHI]-85-113 (June 12, 1985): K5-6.
47. Howell, China Opens Its Doors, 23.
48. Van Liankun and Chen Zhi, "Adopt Preferential Policies and Speed Up the Pace of Foreign Investment in Yunnan," Jingji wenti tansuo (Inquiry into Economic Problems), 1985, no. 6:8.
49. Wu Jixue and Yang Linjun, "The Strategic Implications of Establishing a Cluster of Special Economic Zones, Including Zones in the Interior," Jingji wenti tansuo, 1985, no. 4:1-6.
50. Xu Jingjun, "Use Lateral Economic Linkages to Promote Economic Development in Ethnic Areas," Jingji wenti tansuo, 1987, no. 2:19.
51. Harry Hording, China's Second Revolution: Reform After Mao (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1987); "Overview of Investment Incentives," China Business Review 13 (May-June 1986): 20-23.
52. Harry Hording, China's Second Revolution: Reform After Mao (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1987); "Overview of Investment Incentives," China Business Review 13 (May-June 1986): 20-23.
53. See note 31 above.
54. Zhao Ziyang Discusses the Outward-Oriented Strategy for Economic Development," Inside China Mainland 10, no. 5 (1988): 29.
55. Emily Thornton, "Opportunity Knocks," Far Eastern Economic Review, December 8, 1994, 56.
56. Willy Wo-Lap Lam, The Era of Zhao Ziyang: Power Struggle in China, 1986-1988 (Hong Kong: A. B. Books & Stationery, 1989), 249.
57. Ibid., 248; Wang Guoxing, "Initial Thoughts on Establishing a Special Green Industry Zone in Southern Jiangxi," Jiangxi shehui kexue (Jiangxi Social Sciences), 1991, no. 2:31.
58. Ibid., 248; Wang Guoxing, "Initial Thoughts on Establishing a Special Green Industry Zone in Southern Jiangxi," Jiangxi shehui kexue (Jiangxi Social Sciences), 1991, no. 2:31.
59. Li Xianghua and Wu Shaohua, "Jiangxi's Economic Strategy Within an Environment of [Macroeconomic] Control and Adjustment," Jiangxi shehui kexue, 1990, no. 4:44.
60. Shenzhenshi shinian dashiji, 268.
61. The zone was formally called gaige kaifang guodu shiyan qu (a transitional and experimental zone for reform and opening up). The two counties were Binzhou and Lingling. Both have since upgraded to city status. See Zhang Ping, "On the Regional Realization of Reformist Goals and the Reform of Transitional Areas," Jingji yanjiu (Economic Research), 1988, no. 9:46-50; Elizabeth Cheng, "Beggar Thy Neighbor," Far Eastern Economic Review, January 12, 1989, 46.
62. The zone was formally called gaige kaifang guodu shiyan qu (a transitional and experimental zone for reform and opening up). The two counties were Binzhou and Lingling. Both have since upgraded to city status. See Zhang Ping, "On the Regional Realization of Reformist Goals and the Reform of Transitional Areas," Jingji yanjiu (Economic Research), 1988, no. 9:46-50; Elizabeth Cheng, "Beggar Thy Neighbor," Far Eastern Economic Review, January 12, 1989, 46.
63. Zhang Annan, "The Openness of Southern Hunan," People's Daily (Overseas edition), February 24, 1996, 1.
64. Chang Mu, "A New Economic Operational System Will Be Established in 10 Years with the Aim of Seeking the Unity of the Nucleus and Ensuring the Stability of the General Situation," Ching Pao (The Mirror Monthly) (Hong Kong), no. 163 (February 10, 1991): 22-25; FBIS-CHI-91-040 (February 28, 1991): 38-39.
65. Chang Mu, "A New Economic Operational System Will Be Established in 10 Years with the Aim of Seeking the Unity of the Nucleus and Ensuring the Stability of the General Situation," Ching Pao (The Mirror Monthly) (Hong Kong), no. 163 (February 10, 1991): 22-25; FBIS-CHI-91-040 (February 28, 1991): 38-39.
66. Central leaders including Li Peng, Zhu Rongji, Qiao Shi, and Tian Jiyun visited the SEZs in 1991 to soothe their fears.
67. Radio Beijing, Service to North America (in English), April 7, 1991.
68. Tang Lijiu and Hu Ye, "Border Opening: The New Angle of China's Strategy for Opening Up to the Outside World," Jingji wenti tansuo, 1991, no. 2:51-52.
69. For discussion of other probable reasons behind Deng's move, see Tony Saich, "Peaceful Evolution with Chinese Characteristics," in China Briefing 1992, ed. William A. Joseph (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 9-34. For background analysis as well as the chronology surrounding Deng's southern tour, see Directorate of Intelligence, the Central Intelligence Agency, "The Chinese Economy in 1991 and 1992: Pressure to Revisit Reform Mounts" (Paper submitted to the Subcommittee on Technology and National Security of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, August 1992). A number of Chinese books include detailed reports on Deng's southern tour and its ramifications; see, for example, Yuan Shang and Han Zhu, Deng Xiaoping nanxun hou de Zhongguo (China after Deng Xiaoping's southern tour) (Beijing: Gaige chubanshe, 1992).
70. For discussion of other probable reasons behind Deng's move, see Tony Saich, "Peaceful Evolution with Chinese Characteristics," in China Briefing 1992, ed. William A. Joseph (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 9-34. For background analysis as well as the chronology surrounding Deng's southern tour, see Directorate of Intelligence, the Central Intelligence Agency, "The Chinese Economy in 1991 and 1992: Pressure to Revisit Reform Mounts" (Paper submitted to the Subcommittee on Technology and National Security of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, August 1992). A number of Chinese books include detailed reports on Deng's southern tour and its ramifications; see, for example, Yuan Shang and Han Zhu, Deng Xiaoping nanxun hou de Zhongguo (China after Deng Xiaoping's southern tour) (Beijing: Gaige chubanshe, 1992).
71. For discussion of other probable reasons behind Deng's move, see Tony Saich, "Peaceful Evolution with Chinese Characteristics," in China Briefing 1992, ed. William A. Joseph (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 9-34. For background analysis as well as the chronology surrounding Deng's southern tour, see Directorate of Intelligence, the Central Intelligence Agency, "The Chinese Economy in 1991 and 1992: Pressure to Revisit Reform Mounts" (Paper submitted to the Subcommittee on Technology and National Security of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, August 1992). A number of Chinese books include detailed reports on Deng's southern tour and its ramifications; see, for example, Yuan Shang and Han Zhu, Deng Xiaoping nanxun hou de Zhongguo (China after Deng Xiaoping's southern tour) (Beijing: Gaige chubanshe, 1992).
72. Deng Xiaoping, "Major Points of Comrade Deng Xiaoping's Talks in Wuchang, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, and Shanghai" (1992), in Lu Keng, Deng Xiaoping zuihoude jihui (Deng Xiaoping's last chance) (Hong Kong: Pai Shing Cultural Enterprise, 1992), 207.
73. Deng Xiaoping, "Major Points of Comrade Deng Xiaoping's Talks in Wuchang, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, and Shanghai" (1992), in Lu Keng, Deng Xiaoping zuihoude jihui (Deng Xiaoping's last chance) (Hong Kong: Pai Shing Cultural Enterprise, 1992), 207.
74. Ibid.
75. Saich, "Peaceful Evolution with Chinese Characteristics," 22-23.
76. Yuan and Han, Deng Xiaoping nanxun hou de Zhongguo, 102-41.
77. Zhongguo gaige yu fazhan baogao zhuanjiazu, Zhongguo gaige yu fazhan baogao (1992-1993): Xinde tupo yu xinde tiaozhan (China reform and development report 1992-93: New breakthroughs and new challenges) (Beijing: Zhongguo caizheng jingji chubanshe, 1994), 3.
78. Wang Sanmin, Xu Fan, and Huang Deli, eds., Da kaifang (The great opening) (Dalian, Liaoning: Dongbei caijing daxue chubanshe, 1993), 517-699.
79. Xiong Siyuan, "Conceptualization of Yunnan's Opening Up to the Outside World," Jingji wenti tansuo, 1993, no. 1:59.
80. Chen Guojun, "Xinjiang Greets Important Turning Point in Economic Construction," Liaowang (Outlook Weekly), October 2, 1995, no. 40:30-32; FBIS-CHI-95-229 (November 29, 1995): 86-91.
81. Chen Guojun, "Xinjiang Greets Important Turning Point in Economic Construction," Liaowang (Outlook Weekly), October 2, 1995, no. 40:30-32; FBIS-CHI-95-229 (November 29, 1995): 86-91.
82. Zhang Jinsheng, "Growth in Open Border Cities Reported," Xinhua News Agency, February 12, 1996; FBIS-CHI-96-031 (February 23, 1996): 25-26.
83. Zhang Jinsheng, "Growth in Open Border Cities Reported," Xinhua News Agency, February 12, 1996; FBIS-CHI-96-031 (February 23, 1996): 25-26.
84. For a compilation of local preferential policies, see Renmin ribao guonei zhengzhibu, ed., Dalu gedi youhui zhengce huibian (Compendium of preferential policies of various Chinese localities), 2 vols. (Beijing: Renmin Zhongguo chubanshe, 1993).
85. Zhang Nianhai, "A Study of Experimental Zones' Policies for Local Reform and Opening Up in Ethnic Autonomous Areas," Guizhou minzu yanjiu (Guizhou Nationalities Research), 1995, no. 1:31-33.
86. Liu Li, "State Must Get Basic Right to Boost Economy," China Daily, July 23, 1993, 4.
87. "Rampant Founding of Economic Zones Wastes Good Land," China Daily, May 24, 1993, 4.
88. Zhu Yaoping, "Completely Open Tibet's Doors and Speed Up Opening to the Outside World," Jingji wenti tansuo, 1993, no. 9:56.
89. Yan Zhengde, "Several Issues Concerning the Qinghai Economy's Rise to a New Stage," Qinghai shehui kexue (Qinghai Social Sciences), 1993, no. 1:6.
90. Wang Yong, "A Freer Market for Real Estate," China Daily Business Weekly, May 10, 1993, 8.
91. Kathy Chen, "In Some Provinces, Beijing's Go-Slow Directives Spawn Innovative Strategies for More Growth," Asian Wall Street Journal Weekly, July 19, 1992, 2.
92. Yi Shuihan, "Interior Provinces Promote Innovative Strategies to Attract Businesses," Zhongguo shibao zhoukan (The China Times Magazine), July 25-31, 1993, 50-51; Carl Goldstein, "Full Speed Ahead: Guangdong Party Congress Ignores Calls to Slow Growth," Far Eastern Economic Review, June 3, 1993, 21.
93. Yi Shuihan, "Interior Provinces Promote Innovative Strategies to Attract Businesses," Zhongguo shibao zhoukan (The China Times Magazine), July 25-31, 1993, 50-51; Carl Goldstein, "Full Speed Ahead: Guangdong Party Congress Ignores Calls to Slow Growth," Far Eastern Economic Review, June 3, 1993, 21.
94. Yang, "Policy Credibility and Macroeconomic Control in China."
95. "State to Strictly Control New Zones," China Daily, May 17, 1993, 1.
96. "Local Governments Ordered to Close Unauthorized Development Zones," UPI, August 12, 1993. Note, however, that the People's Daily reported a different set of figures, saying that the number of development zones was reduced from 1,006 to 249 in four months (People's Daily, August 17, 1993, 1).
97. "Local Governments Ordered to Close Unauthorized Development Zones," UPI, August 12, 1993. Note, however, that the People's Daily reported a different set of figures, saying that the number of development zones was reduced from 1,006 to 249 in four months (People's Daily, August 17, 1993, 1).
98. Zhu Ling and Wang Yong, "Bid to Plug Economic Chasm as Zones Close," China Daily, August 18, 1993, 1; Dow Jones News, August 17, 1993.
99. Zhu Ling and Wang Yong, "Bid to Plug Economic Chasm as Zones Close," China Daily, August 18, 1993, 1; Dow Jones News, August 17, 1993.
100. Daniel Kwan, "Zhu: Guizhou to Be Spared Austerity Drive," South China Morning Post, July 21, 1993, 11; FBIS-CHI-93-138 (July 21, 1993): 15.
101. Daniel Kwan, "Zhu: Guizhou to Be Spared Austerity Drive," South China Morning Post, July 21, 1993, 11; FBIS-CHI-93-138 (July 21, 1993): 15.
102. Zhong Xingzhi, "The Policy Compromise Between the Center and Shanghai," Zhong- guo shibao zhoukan, August 29, 1993, 19.
103. Ma Zhiqiang, "Emancipate the Mind, Change Concepts, and Promote Development by Opening Up," Gansu ribao (Gansu Daily), September 12, 1995, 1; FBIS-CHI-95- 202 (October 19, 1995): 41-43.
104. Ma Zhiqiang, "Emancipate the Mind, Change Concepts, and Promote Development by Opening Up," Gansu ribao (Gansu Daily), September 12, 1995, 1; FBIS-CHI-95- 202 (October 19, 1995): 41-43.
105. Wu Ren, "Regional Economic Development," Jiangxi shehui kexue, 1990, no. 1:14-17.
106. For a Chinese discussion of the political advantages of emphasizing reforms in the coastal regions, see Yang Zhongwei, Chen Kaiguo, and Pei Changhong, "Regional [Reform] Battles to Ensure National Stability," Jingji yanjiu, 1988, no. 1:43-50.
107. "Zhao Haoruo Believes Both Domestic and International Conditions Exist and the Time Is Ripe for Speeding Up Development of the Western Region," Qiaobao (China Press), May 9, 1996, 4.