The forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 217-260

  Chappell, David A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0011817636     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3641439     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Letter from the Mau at Nu'uuli, Tutuila, to the U.S. Congressional Commission, Aug. 18, 1930, Exhibit 6, Hearings in Honolulu, Sept. 18-20, 1930, in American Samoa: Hearings Before the Commission Appointed by the President of the United States, in Accordance with Public Resolution No. 89, 70th Congress, and Public Resolution No. 3, 71st Congress (Washington, D.C., 1931), hereafter cited as Hearings 1930.
2. Western Samoa shortened its name to Samoa in July 1997, to remove a modifier that enshrined the colonial partition of the archipelago. In the 1980s several works reexamined its nonviolent protest movement, such as Michael Field, Mau: Samoa's Struggle for Freedom (Auckland, N.Z., 1984), K. Etuati, "Evaevaga a Samoa: Assertion of Samoan Autonomy" (Ph.D. dissertation, Australian National University, 1982); Peter Hempenstall and Noel Rutherford, Protest and Dissent in the Colonial Pacific (Suva, Fiji, 1984), chapter 1; and Malama Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the Modern History of Western Samoa (Suva, Fiji, 1987), chapter 6.
3. Western Samoa shortened its name to Samoa in July 1997, to remove a modifier that enshrined the colonial partition of the archipelago. In the 1980s several works reexamined its nonviolent protest movement, such as Michael Field, Mau: Samoa's Struggle for Freedom (Auckland, N.Z., 1984), K. Etuati, "Evaevaga a Samoa: Assertion of Samoan Autonomy" (Ph.D. dissertation, Australian National University, 1982); Peter Hempenstall and Noel Rutherford, Protest and Dissent in the Colonial Pacific (Suva, Fiji, 1984), chapter 1; and Malama Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the Modern History of Western Samoa (Suva, Fiji, 1987), chapter 6.
4. Western Samoa shortened its name to Samoa in July 1997, to remove a modifier that enshrined the colonial partition of the archipelago. In the 1980s several works reexamined its nonviolent protest movement, such as Michael Field, Mau: Samoa's Struggle for Freedom (Auckland, N.Z., 1984), K. Etuati, "Evaevaga a Samoa: Assertion of Samoan Autonomy" (Ph.D. dissertation, Australian National University, 1982); Peter Hempenstall and Noel Rutherford, Protest and Dissent in the Colonial Pacific (Suva, Fiji, 1984), chapter 1; and Malama Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the Modern History of Western Samoa (Suva, Fiji, 1987), chapter 6.
5. Western Samoa shortened its name to Samoa in July 1997, to remove a modifier that enshrined the colonial partition of the archipelago. In the 1980s several works reexamined its nonviolent protest movement, such as Michael Field, Mau: Samoa's Struggle for Freedom (Auckland, N.Z., 1984), K. Etuati, "Evaevaga a Samoa: Assertion of Samoan Autonomy" (Ph.D. dissertation, Australian National University, 1982); Peter Hempenstall and Noel Rutherford, Protest and Dissent in the Colonial Pacific (Suva, Fiji, 1984), chapter 1; and Malama Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the Modern History of Western Samoa (Suva, Fiji, 1987), chapter 6.
6. Interviews by the author in American Samoa, with Chief Savusa of Nu'uuli, June 1997, and with Carmen Pita, June 1995.
7. John Kneubuhl, Think of a Garden and Other Plays (Honolulu, 1992), first play.
8. Daniel Pritchard, The Naval Administration in American Samoa, 1900-1951 (Pago Pago, n.d.), 60. See also J. A. C. Gray, Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and Its United States Naval Administration (Annapolis, 1960), chapters 27, 28, and 30.
9. Daniel Pritchard, The Naval Administration in American Samoa, 1900-1951 (Pago Pago, n.d.), 60. See also J. A. C. Gray, Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and Its United States Naval Administration (Annapolis, 1960), chapters 27, 28, and 30.
10. See Sue Roff, Overreaching in Paradise: United States Policy in Palau since 1945 (Juneau, Alaska, 1991), 15-23.
11. See Brij Lal, Doug Munro, and Edward Beechert, eds., Plantation Workers: Resistance and Accommodation (Honolulu, 1993), introduction, which draws on James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, Conn., 1985), and Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel, and Government (Princeton, N.J., 1994).
12. See Brij Lal, Doug Munro, and Edward Beechert, eds., Plantation Workers: Resistance and Accommodation (Honolulu, 1993), introduction, which draws on James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, Conn., 1985), and Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel, and Government (Princeton, N.J., 1994).
13. See Brij Lal, Doug Munro, and Edward Beechert, eds., Plantation Workers: Resistance and Accommodation (Honolulu, 1993), introduction, which draws on James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, Conn., 1985), and Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel, and Government (Princeton, N.J., 1994).
14. Hempenstall and Rutherford, Protest and Dissent in the Colonial Pacific, 2. See also Roger Keesing, Custom and Confrontation: The Kwaio Struggle for Cultural Autonomy (Chicago, 1992).
15. Hempenstall and Rutherford, Protest and Dissent in the Colonial Pacific, 2. See also Roger Keesing, Custom and Confrontation: The Kwaio Struggle for Cultural Autonomy (Chicago, 1992).
16. Ranajit Guha, Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 3-23. See also Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (3 vols., New York, 1990), 1: 92-95.
17. Ranajit Guha, Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 3-23. See also Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (3 vols., New York, 1990), 1: 92-95.
18. Ranajit Guha, Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 3-23. See also Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (3 vols., New York, 1990), 1: 92-95.
19. Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 105.
20. R. P. Berking, The Cyclopedia of Samoa (Sydney, Australia, 1907), 25.
21. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 58.
22. Clark Reynolds, Command of the Sea: The History and Strategy of Maritime Empires (New York, 1974), 413-421.
23. Quoted in Paul Kennedy, The Samoan Tangle: A Study in Anglo-German-American Relations, 1878-1900 (New York, 1974), 143.
24. Ibid., 253. Ironically, even at the time critics pointed out that American strategic interests lay mainly in the northern Pacific, whereas Pago Pago was on the shipping route to Australia. No U.S. warship had called there for twelve years. The harbor did get some use in World War II, although other bases across the region, in allied colonies, were just as important. The closure of the naval station in 1951, as the Cold War was turning the northern Pacific into a key strategic zone, demonstrates that the acquisition of Pago Pago was almost anachronistic when it happened.
25. Fofo I. F. Sunia, "American Samoa: Fa'a Amerika?" in Malama Meleisea, ed., Politics in Polynesia (Suva, Fiji, 1983), 126.
26. Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 1.
27. Ibid., 2.
28. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 108-110. See also Arnold Leibowitz, Defining Status: A Comprehensive Analysis of United States Territorial Relations (Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1989), 414-415.
29. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 108-110. See also Arnold Leibowitz, Defining Status: A Comprehensive Analysis of United States Territorial Relations (Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1989), 414-415.
30. Edward Michal, "American Samoa or Eastern Samoa? The Potential for American Samoa to Become Freely Associated with the United States," The Contemporary Pacific (1992), 144-149.
31. Eni F. H. Faleomavaega, Navigating the Future: A Samoan Perspective on U.S.-Pacific Relations (Suva, Fiji, 1995), 36-37.
32. Ibid., Appendix, "Treaties, Cessions and Federal Law," 125-129. For the Samoan text of the Deeds, see Gray, Amerika Samoa, 112-117.
33. Ibid., Appendix, "Treaties, Cessions and Federal Law," 125-129. For the Samoan text of the Deeds, see Gray, Amerika Samoa, 112-117.
34. Peter Burke, A New Kind of History from the Writings of Febvre (New York, 1973), chapter 10; Emile Beneviste, Problems in General Linguistics (Miami, Fla., 1971), chapter 28; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization, trans. by Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford, Eng., 1994); C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939-1210 (Philadelphia, 1985). Sigmund Freud said repressive conformity caused neuroses, in Civilization and Its Discontents (New York, 1962).
35. Peter Burke, A New Kind of History from the Writings of Febvre (New York, 1973), chapter 10; Emile Beneviste, Problems in General Linguistics (Miami, Fla., 1971), chapter 28; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization, trans. by Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford, Eng., 1994); C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939-1210 (Philadelphia, 1985). Sigmund Freud said repressive conformity caused neuroses, in Civilization and Its Discontents (New York, 1962).
36. Peter Burke, A New Kind of History from the Writings of Febvre (New York, 1973), chapter 10; Emile Beneviste, Problems in General Linguistics (Miami, Fla., 1971), chapter 28; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization, trans. by Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford, Eng., 1994); C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939-1210 (Philadelphia, 1985). Sigmund Freud said repressive conformity caused neuroses, in Civilization and Its Discontents (New York, 1962).
37. Peter Burke, A New Kind of History from the Writings of Febvre (New York, 1973), chapter 10; Emile Beneviste, Problems in General Linguistics (Miami, Fla., 1971), chapter 28; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization, trans. by Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford, Eng., 1994); C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939-1210 (Philadelphia, 1985). Sigmund Freud said repressive conformity caused neuroses, in Civilization and Its Discontents (New York, 1962).
38. Peter Burke, A New Kind of History from the Writings of Febvre (New York, 1973), chapter 10; Emile Beneviste, Problems in General Linguistics (Miami, Fla., 1971), chapter 28; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization, trans. by Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford, Eng., 1994); C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939-1210 (Philadelphia, 1985). Sigmund Freud said repressive conformity caused neuroses, in Civilization and Its Discontents (New York, 1962).
39. John Bodley, Victims of Progress (Mountain View, Calif., 1990), 15.
40. Lynn Miller, Global Order: Values and Power in International Politics (Boulder, Colo., 1990), chapter 2.
41. Commandant Uriel Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Annual Report, Aug. 9, 1902, Office of the Secretary of the Navy, General Correspondence, File Nos. 3931 (1897-1926) and EG53/A9-10 (1927-1930), on Microfilm T1182 in Records of the Government of American Samoa, Records Group 284, National Archives (hereafter cited as OSNGC, RG 284).
42. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 8, 1902, ibid.
43. Galumalemana Afeleti L. Hunkin, Gagana Samoa: A Samoan Language Coursebook (Auckland, N.Z., 1992), 19.
44. Lowell Holmes, Samoan Village (New York, 1974), 21.
45. Ibid., 22.
46. Samoan migrants overseas, living in urban ghettoes in the United States or New Zealand, have sometimes had a more negative stereotype, but people who know the fa'a Samoa argue the reason is that they are uprooted from their traditional context and competing with other alienated poor.
47. Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 50.
48. Ibid., 105.
49. Quoted in Field, Mau, 53.
50. E. W. Gurr to Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 18, 1901, OSNGC, RG 284.
51. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 150-157.
52. Gurr enclosure in Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, May 13, 1902; Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, April 26, May 17, 1902, all in OSNGC, RG 284, Gray, Amerika Samoa, 140-149. At issue was a kava ceremony attended by the Mauga on Ofu, in the Tui Manu'a's district, in which a title reserved for the latter was accorded to the visitor. Tui Manu'a Elisara arrested three participants, and pro-Mauga chiefs gathered together 250 warriors in preparation for battle.
53. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, May 17, 1902; Gurr to Sebree, April 8, 1902; Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, June 30, Aug. 1, 9, 1902, all in OSNGC, RG 284.
54. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 9, 1902, ibid.
55. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, March 17, 1902, ibid.
56. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 9, 1902, Jan. 26, Feb. 16, 1903, ibid.
57. E. B. Underwood to Secretary of the Navy, Jan. 14, Feb. 4, and May 23, 1904. ibid. For rivalry of western and eastern districts, see Gray's fa'alupega, in Amerika Samoa, chapter 16.
58. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Jan. 26, 1903, Underwood to Secretary of the Navy, April 30, 1904, and C. B. T. Moore to Secretary of the Navy, Oct. 9, 30, 1905, OSNGC, RG 284.
59. Hearings 1930, 84, 115, 146-147.
60. Alex Willis, in Hearings 1930, 246.
61. Mauga Moi Moi, in Hearings 1930, 265; Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 9, 1902, Underwood to Secretary of the Navy, July 10, 1903, both in OSNGC, RG 284.
62. Edwin Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, H. F. Bryan to Secretary of the Navy, Jan. 18, 1927, OSNGC, RG 284; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 228; and interview by author with Fai'ivae Apelu in Leone, June 1997.
63. See John Poyer to Secretary of the Navy, Annual Report 1917, Willis to Warren Terhune, June 28, 1920, OSNGC, RG 284; and the Mauga, in Hearings 1930, 265.
64. A. M. Noble to Terhune, July 1, 1919; Terhune to Secretary of the Navy, July 15, 1919, Aug. 1, 1920; Waldo Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 1, 1921, all in OSNGC, RG 284.
65. G. B. Milner, Samoan Dictionary (Auckland, N.Z., 1993), 139. See also, Field, Mau, 89, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 142.
66. G. B. Milner, Samoan Dictionary (Auckland, N.Z., 1993), 139. See also, Field, Mau, 89, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 142.
67. G. B. Milner, Samoan Dictionary (Auckland, N.Z., 1993), 139. See also, Field, Mau, 89, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 142.
68. See, for example, Felix Keesing, Modern Samoa: Its Government and Changing Life (Canberra, Australia, 1934), 152-153, and Field, Mau, 75-80, for western Samoa. For American Samoa, see Terhune to Secretary of the Navy, June 21, 1920, and Evans to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 31, 1921, both in OSNGC, RG 284.
69. See, for example, Felix Keesing, Modern Samoa: Its Government and Changing Life (Canberra, Australia, 1934), 152-153, and Field, Mau, 75-80, for western Samoa. For American Samoa, see Terhune to Secretary of the Navy, June 21, 1920, and Evans to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 31, 1921, both in OSNGC, RG 284.
70. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 195.
71. Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 127-128.
72. This patronizing theme is even present in the popular comic film released by South Africa, The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980). Besides romanticizing "Bushmen" lifestyles, which are really undergoing destructive change, the filmmakers put a foreigner in charge of rebel "terrorists."
73. Thomas Darden, Historical Sketch of the Naval Administration of the Government of American Samoa, April 17, 1900-July 1, 1951 (Washington, D.C., 1952), 5; interview by author with Chief Savusa in Nu'uuli, June 1997.
74. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 210, from which Field, Mau, 105-106, takes his interpretation. On December 28, 1929, New Zealand troops opened fire with a machine gun on a western Samoan Mau march led bv a high chief, killing eight, including the chief, and wounding fifty more. The resulting scandal led the Labour Party to investigate and finally legalize the Mau as a party. Field, Mau, 147-159, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 126-154.
75. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 210, from which Field, Mau, 105-106, takes his interpretation. On December 28, 1929, New Zealand troops opened fire with a machine gun on a western Samoan Mau march led bv a high chief, killing eight, including the chief, and wounding fifty more. The resulting scandal led the Labour Party to investigate and finally legalize the Mau as a party. Field, Mau, 147-159, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 126-154.
76. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 210, from which Field, Mau, 105-106, takes his interpretation. On December 28, 1929, New Zealand troops opened fire with a machine gun on a western Samoan Mau march led bv a high chief, killing eight, including the chief, and wounding fifty more. The resulting scandal led the Labour Party to investigate and finally legalize the Mau as a party. Field, Mau, 147-159, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 126-154.
77. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 210, from which Field, Mau, 105-106, takes his interpretation. On December 28, 1929, New Zealand troops opened fire with a machine gun on a western Samoan Mau march led bv a high chief, killing eight, including the chief, and wounding fifty more. The resulting scandal led the Labour Party to investigate and finally legalize the Mau as a party. Field, Mau, 147-159, and Meleisea, Making of Modern Samoa, 126-154.
78. Hearings 1930, 147.
79. Ta'amu, in Hearings 1930, 171; Noble to Terhune, July 1, 1919, OSNGC, RG 284; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 194.
80. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 9, 1902, OSNGC, RG 284.
81. Terhune enclosures to Secretary of the Navy: Mauga, in Fono, July 21, 1920, Depositions by Kenan Young and Warren Ives to Terhune, July 30, 1920, and Deposition by A. B. Hardege to Terhune, Aug. 2, 1920, ibid.; Willis, in Hearings 1930, 206.
82. Noble to Terhune, Sept. 3, 1920, OSNGC, RG 284.
83. Terhune to Secretary of the Navy, July 27, 1920, ibid.
84. Interview by author with Professor Pulefaasisina Tuiasosopo at American Samoa Community College, June 1997.
85. Napoleon Samoa Tuiteleleapaga, in Hearings 1930, 75; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 191-192.
86. Napoleon Samoa Tuiteleleapaga, in Hearings 1930, 75; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 191-192.
87. Mauga, in Fono, July 21, 1920, and Petition by Chiefs, Oct. 18, 1920, both in OSNGC, RG 284.
88. Mauga, in Fono, July 21, 1920, ibid.
89. Bryan to Secretary of the Navy, Jan. 16, 25, 1926, ibid.; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 193-194.
90. Text of Proclamation of Court of Inquiry, enclosed to Secretary of the Navy, June 30, 1921, Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 1, 1921, ibid.; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 194.
91. Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 1, 1921, OSNGC, RG 284.
92. Terhune to Secretary of the Navy, July 27, 1920, ibid.
93. Willis, in Hearings 1930, 206.
94. Deposition by interpreter Alexander Forsythe to Terhune, July 21, 1920, OSNGC, RG 284. C. F. Ely called Forsythe a crook who had once been deported, in Memo to Evans, Aug. 18, 1920, ibid. Ely also commented that Samoans were very religious and "fond of fiestas and functions at which they are great sticklers for rank." Terhune, however, had banned all fono in response to their protest.
95. Willis to Terhune, June 28, 1920, B. Kneubuhl to Terhune, June 24, 1920, Terhune to Secretary of the Navy, June 22, July 27, 28, 1920, and Noble to Terhune, June 22, 1920, all in ibid.
96. Noble to Terhune, Sept. 3, 1920, Willis to Terhune, June 28, 1920, ibid.; Willis, in Hearings 1930, 206.
97. Chiefly Petition to Arthur Kail, Sept. 15, 1920, Kail to Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 4, 1920, Edwin Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, June 16, 1922, all in OSNGC, RG 284; Mauga, in Hearings 1930, 265-266.
98. Proclamation, enclosed Evans to Secretary of the Navy, June 30, 1921, OSNGC, RG 284; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 198-199.
99. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284.
100. Text enclosed Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, emphasis in original; see also Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 1, 26, 1921, ibid.; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 201-202; Uo, in Hearings 1930, 142-143.
101. Text enclosed Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, emphasis in original; see also Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 1, 26, 1921, ibid.; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 201-202; Uo, in Hearings 1930, 142-143.
102. S. Ripley to U.S. President, March 1921, OSNGC, RG 284; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 193-203.
103. Hearings 1930, 11, 77-78.
104. Ibid., 80 (Tuiteleleapaga).
105. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 16, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284.
106. Stephen Graham to Secretary of the Navy, Jan. 25, May 17, 1928, ibid.
107. Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 29, Aug. 31, 1921, ibid.
108. Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 29, Aug. 16, 1921, ibid. For pre-Mau protests in western Samoa, see Field, Mau, 56. For Gray quote, see Amerika Samoa, 202.
109. Evans to Secretary of the Navy, July 29, Aug. 16, 1921, ibid. For pre-Mau protests in western Samoa, see Field, Mau, 56. For Gray quote, see Amerika Samoa, 202.
110. Evans to Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 31, 1921, C. S, Hannum to Pollack, March 6, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284; Hearings 1930, 76, 86 (Tuiteleleapaga).
111. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 16, June 3, 1922, Petition of Chiefs for Release, April 30, 1922, both in OSNGC, RG 284.
112. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 11, 1922, ibid.
113. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 204.
114. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284. See also Pollack, March 11, 1922, and Gray, Amerika Samoa, 203.
115. The entire conversation is in Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284.
116. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 16, 1922, ibid.; Hearings 1930, 75, 207.
117. Evans to Pollack, May 10, 1922, ibid.
118. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 30, 1922, Petition from Chiefs, April 30, 1922, Sydney Hall to Pollack, July 31, 1922, ibid.
119. Field, Mau, 58.
120. Hannum to Pollack, Jan. 26, March 6, 1922, Hannum to Chiefs, Dec. 16, 1922, Graham to Secretary of the Navy, May 17, 1928, all in OSNGC, RG 284. For pardons, see Gray, Amerika Samoa, 205. Several of the imprisoned chiefs may have died in captivity. See Frederick Olsen, "The Navy and the White Man's Burden: The Naval Administration of Samoa" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1976), 65.
121. Hannum to Pollack, Jan. 26, March 6, 1922, Hannum to Chiefs, Dec. 16, 1922, Graham to Secretary of the Navy, May 17, 1928, all in OSNGC, RG 284. For pardons, see Gray, Amerika Samoa, 205. Several of the imprisoned chiefs may have died in captivity. See Frederick Olsen, "The Navy and the White Man's Burden: The Naval Administration of Samoa" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1976), 65.
122. H. Johnson to Pollack, Oct. 12, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284; Appendix in Faleomavaega, Navigating the Future, 125; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 65; Uo, in Hearings 1930, 143.
123. H. Johnson to Pollack, Oct. 12, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284; Appendix in Faleomavaega, Navigating the Future, 125; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 65; Uo, in Hearings 1930, 143.
124. H. Johnson to Pollack, Oct. 12, 1922, OSNGC, RG 284; Appendix in Faleomavaega, Navigating the Future, 125; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 65; Uo, in Hearings 1930, 143.
125. Sebree to Secretary of the Navy, March 14, 17, May 17, 1902, OSNGC, RG 284.
126. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 161-162.
127. Ibid., 207-208.
128. Bryan to Secretary of the Navy, Jan. 25, 1926, Pollack to Bryan, March 26, 1926, OSNGC, RG 284; Honolulu Advertiser, March 21, May 2, 1926; New York Times, March 14, 1926.
129. Field, Mau, 73.
130. Bryan to Secretary of the Navy, Dec. 27, 1926, Jan. 18, 1927, OSNGC, RG 284.
131. Samoan Guardian, July 21, 1927; Bryan to Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 10, 1927, OSNGC, RG 284.
132. Cartwright Report to Bryan, Nov. 4, 1927, ibid.
133. John Coulter, The Pacific Dependencies of the United States (New York, 1957), 103.
134. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 232-233.
135. Graham to Secretary of the Navy, Dec. 14, 1927, Jan. 25, 1928, OSNGC, RG 284.
136. Field, Mau, 84. See also endnote 112.
137. Interview by author with Chief Savusa in Nu'uuli, June 1997.
138. Interview by author with Fai'ivae Apelu in Leone, June 1997.
139. C. S. Lincoln to Secretary of the Navy, Feb. 10, 1930, OSNGC, RG 284.
140. Hearings 1930, Introduction; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 221.
141. Hearings 1930, Introduction; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 221.
142. Ibid., 210.
143. Hearings 1930, 48-70.
144. Ibid., 31, 56, 59, Salavea on 178, Galea'i on 232.
145. Ibid., Pele on 115-116, Lei'ato on 198-199.
146. Ibid., Aumavae on 159, Gagai on 163, Willis on 207.
147. Ibid., Uo on 142-143, Aumavae on 157.
148. Ibid., Salavea on 177.
149. Ibid., Ta'amu on 171, Mauga on 265.
150. Ibid., Savea on 194, Liu on 229, respectively.
151. Ibid., 199.
152. Ibid., 136-139.
153. Ibid., 144-154.
154. Ibid., 161.
155. Ibid., 217-218.
156. Ibid., 229. See also Chris Young on 219, Nua on 221.
157. Ibid., 231-242.
158. Gray, Amerika Samoa, 210, 231-238.
159. Leibowitz, Defining Status, 426-427, 451-455; Sunia, "American Samoa," 117-125; Pulefaasisina Tuiasosopo, interview by author in Tualauta, June 1997; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 244-249; Coulter, Pacific Dependencies, 101-106. For out-migration today, see Dennis Ahlburg and Michael Levin, The Northeast Passage: A Study of Pacific Islander Migration to American Samoa and the United States (Canberra, Australia, 1990).
160. Leibowitz, Defining Status, 426-427, 451-455; Sunia, "American Samoa," 117-125; Pulefaasisina Tuiasosopo, interview by author in Tualauta, June 1997; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 244-249; Coulter, Pacific Dependencies, 101-106. For out-migration today, see Dennis Ahlburg and Michael Levin, The Northeast Passage: A Study of Pacific Islander Migration to American Samoa and the United States (Canberra, Australia, 1990).
161. Leibowitz, Defining Status, 426-427, 451-455; Sunia, "American Samoa," 117-125; Pulefaasisina Tuiasosopo, interview by author in Tualauta, June 1997; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 244-249; Coulter, Pacific Dependencies, 101-106. For out-migration today, see Dennis Ahlburg and Michael Levin, The Northeast Passage: A Study of Pacific Islander Migration to American Samoa and the United States (Canberra, Australia, 1990).
162. Leibowitz, Defining Status, 426-427, 451-455; Sunia, "American Samoa," 117-125; Pulefaasisina Tuiasosopo, interview by author in Tualauta, June 1997; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 244-249; Coulter, Pacific Dependencies, 101-106. For out-migration today, see Dennis Ahlburg and Michael Levin, The Northeast Passage: A Study of Pacific Islander Migration to American Samoa and the United States (Canberra, Australia, 1990).
163. Leibowitz, Defining Status, 426-427, 451-455; Sunia, "American Samoa," 117-125; Pulefaasisina Tuiasosopo, interview by author in Tualauta, June 1997; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 244-249; Coulter, Pacific Dependencies, 101-106. For out-migration today, see Dennis Ahlburg and Michael Levin, The Northeast Passage: A Study of Pacific Islander Migration to American Samoa and the United States (Canberra, Australia, 1990).
164. Eni Faleomavaega, "American Samoa: A Unique Entity in the South Pacific," in Werner vom Busch et al., eds., New Politics in the South Pacific (Suva, Fiji, 1994), 116-118; interviews by author with Tuialu'ulu'u Pago Pago, June 1995, and with Fai'ivae Apelu in Leone, June 1997.
165. Pollack to Secretary of the Navy, March 15, 1922, Graham to Secretary of the Navy, Dec. 14, 1927, OSNGC, RG 284; Gray, Amerika Samoa, 204, 210.
166. Interview by author with Tuiasosopo at American Samoa Community College, June 1997.