Women and work in Saudi Arabia: How flexible are Islamic margins?

Middle East Journal

Volumn 53, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 568-582

  Doumato, Eleanor Abdella ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0011089617     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Interview with author in Boston, May 1996.
2. US Department of State, "Saudi Arabia Human Rights Practices, 1995," (Washington: US Government Printing Office, March 1996).
3. Javid Hassan, "Saudi Women Given Green Light in Hotel Industry," Internet Arab View in English (28 February 1997), as reported in FBIS-NES-97-070 11 March 1997.
4. Hamad Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia (Beltsville, MD: Amana Publishers, 1995), p. 34, 45-46.
5. The figure for men was 52.7 percent. For university administrative positions the percentage of Saudi nationals is lower: 47.3 percent for men and 35.2 percent for women. "Saudi Teachers, Administrators at Universities Increase," Al-Dammam al-Yawm, 19 January 1997, p. 4 as reported in FBIS, 19 January 1997, doc. # FBIS-NES-97-015.
6. Nurse training programs have been funded at least since 1979, but until recently most of the students came from foreign countries because for women, nursing carries a social stigma in Saudi Arabia. Anecdotal information suggests that about 10 percent of nurses in the Kingdom are Saudi nationals. However, in interviews I conducted at the National Guard Hospital in Riyadh in May of 1996, I was told that there were no Saudi nurses employed at that hospital.
7. Thurayya al-Urayyid, "In Her Own Voice Without a Go-Between," Al-Jazirah (Riyadh), 16 November 1996, p. 5, quoted in FBIS-NES-96-230, 16 November 1996; Haya 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Mani', "Writer Pleads Case for Women's Involvement in Planning," al-Riyadh, (Riyadh) 23 January 1997, p. 12, quoted in FBIS-NES-97-017, 23 January 1997; "Saudi Shura Council Speaker on Possible Changes to Council," Al-Sharq al-Awsat, (London) 6 July 1997, p. 4, FBIS-NES-97-196, 6 July 1997.
8. Thurayya al-Urayyid, "In Her Own Voice Without a Go-Between," Al-Jazirah (Riyadh), 16 November 1996, p. 5, quoted in FBIS-NES-96-230, 16 November 1996; Haya 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Mani', "Writer Pleads Case for Women's Involvement in Planning," al-Riyadh, (Riyadh) 23 January 1997, p. 12, quoted in FBIS-NES-97-017, 23 January 1997; "Saudi Shura Council Speaker on Possible Changes to Council," Al-Sharq al-Awsat, (London) 6 July 1997, p. 4, FBIS-NES-97-196, 6 July 1997.
9. Thurayya al-Urayyid, "In Her Own Voice Without a Go-Between," Al-Jazirah (Riyadh), 16 November 1996, p. 5, quoted in FBIS-NES-96-230, 16 November 1996; Haya 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Mani', "Writer Pleads Case for Women's Involvement in Planning," al-Riyadh, (Riyadh) 23 January 1997, p. 12, quoted in FBIS-NES-97-017, 23 January 1997; "Saudi Shura Council Speaker on Possible Changes to Council," Al-Sharq al-Awsat, (London) 6 July 1997, p. 4, FBIS-NES-97-196, 6 July 1997.
10. Al Salloom, Education p. 68 and Javid Hassan, "Saudi Women Given Green Light".
11. Al Salloom, Education p. 68 and Javid Hassan, "Saudi Women Given Green Light".
12. Hanan A. al-Ahmadi, Programs Department Director at the Institute of Public Administration in interview with author at the Institute in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on 14 May 1996.
13. Associated Press, "Slide Over Saudi Economy," 13 April 1997 and Akhbar, Muslim World News, Volume 1, No.9 (9 July 1996); In 1992 the per capita GDP was $7,200. US Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs,"Background Notes: Saudi Arabia" March 1995 (unpublished document distributed by the American Embassy, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, hereafter cited as Background Notes); According to the World Bank, the GNP per capita in 1994 was $7,860. World Bank, Claiming the Future, Choosing Prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995, p. 112. In 1995, the average annual income of a Saudi family in Riyadh was between 120,000 to 125,000 Saudi riyals, or about $39,000, not a very adequate amount for families who average over six children. Dr. Ihassan Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy: phasing out expatriates and phasing in Saudis," al-Iqtisadiyya, 23 October 1996, retrieved at www.arab.net/arabview/articles/buhaliqal/html.
14. Associated Press, "Slide Over Saudi Economy," 13 April 1997 and Akhbar, Muslim World News, Volume 1, No.9 (9 July 1996); In 1992 the per capita GDP was $7,200. US Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs,"Background Notes: Saudi Arabia" March 1995 (unpublished document distributed by the American Embassy, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, hereafter cited as Background Notes); According to the World Bank, the GNP per capita in 1994 was $7,860. World Bank, Claiming the Future, Choosing Prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995, p. 112. In 1995, the average annual income of a Saudi family in Riyadh was between 120,000 to 125,000 Saudi riyals, or about $39,000, not a very adequate amount for families who average over six children. Dr. Ihassan Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy: phasing out expatriates and phasing in Saudis," al-Iqtisadiyya, 23 October 1996, retrieved at www.arab.net/arabview/articles/buhaliqal/html.
15. Associated Press, "Slide Over Saudi Economy," 13 April 1997 and Akhbar, Muslim World News, Volume 1, No.9 (9 July 1996); In 1992 the per capita GDP was $7,200. US Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs,"Background Notes: Saudi Arabia" March 1995 (unpublished document distributed by the American Embassy, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, hereafter cited as Background Notes); According to the World Bank, the GNP per capita in 1994 was $7,860. World Bank, Claiming the Future, Choosing Prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995, p. 112. In 1995, the average annual income of a Saudi family in Riyadh was between 120,000 to 125,000 Saudi riyals, or about $39,000, not a very adequate amount for families who average over six children. Dr. Ihassan Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy: phasing out expatriates and phasing in Saudis," al-Iqtisadiyya, 23 October 1996, retrieved at www.arab.net/arabview/articles/buhaliqal/html.
16. Associated Press, "Slide Over Saudi Economy," 13 April 1997 and Akhbar, Muslim World News, Volume 1, No.9 (9 July 1996); In 1992 the per capita GDP was $7,200. US Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs,"Background Notes: Saudi Arabia" March 1995 (unpublished document distributed by the American Embassy, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, hereafter cited as Background Notes); According to the World Bank, the GNP per capita in 1994 was $7,860. World Bank, Claiming the Future, Choosing Prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995, p. 112. In 1995, the average annual income of a Saudi family in Riyadh was between 120,000 to 125,000 Saudi riyals, or about $39,000, not a very adequate amount for families who average over six children. Dr. Ihassan Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy: phasing out expatriates and phasing in Saudis," al-Iqtisadiyya, 23 October 1996, retrieved at www.arab.net/arabview/articles/buhaliqal/html.
17. Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy". The goal of adding more women to the workforce "in keeping with Islamic Shari'a" is also stated in the Sixth Development Plan.
18. Jasir al-Jasir, "Saudi Arabia Deports Half Million Foreign Workers, Will they Return Again?" Al-Wasat, London, 3 November 1997, pp. 10-13. FBIS-NES-97-335, 1 December 1997.
19. Background Notes. A study done by the Economic Studies Center in Riyadh concluded that Saudis constitute only 25 percent of the work force. Muhammad Najib Sa'd, "4.7 Million Foreign Workers Transfer 62 Billion Riyals Annually" Al Wasat (London), 2 February 1998, pp. 38-39, quoted from FBIS, no. FTS19980219002286, 19 February 1998.
20. Background Notes. A study done by the Economic Studies Center in Riyadh concluded that Saudis constitute only 25 percent of the work force. Muhammad Najib Sa'd, "4.7 Million Foreign Workers Transfer 62 Billion Riyals Annually" Al Wasat (London), 2 February 1998, pp. 38-39, quoted from FBIS, no. FTS19980219002286, 19 February 1998.
21. Jasir al-Jasir, "Saudi Arabia Deports Half-Million Foreign Workers". The number of Saudi nationals in the private sector, where foreigners occupy 80 percent of the jobs, actually went down by one percent between 1991 and 1995.
22. A 1996 study indicates that in Riyadh only 283,000 families out of 457,000 were Saudis. Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy".
23. Bu-Haliqa, "The Saudi Economy".
24. Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Planning, Third Development Plan (1980-1985), Table 3-7 "Projected Civilian Employment in Saudi Arabia 1399/1400 to 1404/05", p. 98.
25. William van Eeghen, Education in MENA: Benefits and Growth Payoffs Now and Then, Confidential Reports no. 16784 MNA, World Bank, 19 June 1997, Table 12, "Illiteracy Rates as % of pop. age 154, 1985, '90 and '95," p. 45.
26. Van Eeghen, Education in MENA Table 6 "Gross enrollment ratios (%) of primary level education, 1985 and 1992", p. 30. (just under 1 million children were not in school.).
27. Van Eeghen, Education in MENA Table 7 "Gross enrollment ratios (%) of secondary level education, 1985 and 1992", p. 34.
28. Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia, Table 9-B, "Total Number of Schools, Students, and Classes at the Secondary Level, by Boys and/or Girls, for School Years 1404 & 1414 AH," p. 45; and Hamad Al Salloom, Director General, Institute of Public Administration, chart of school enrollment by male and female for 1996, compiled from Ministry of Education, Summary Statistics on male education as of 17 November 1996 and General Presidency for Girls' Education, Summary Statistics for all levels of education as of 3 December 1996. (unpublished charts sent by Dr. Al Salloom to author).
29. Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia, Table 9-B, "Total Number of Schools, Students, and Classes at the Secondary Level, by Boys and/or Girls, for School Years 1404 & 1414 AH," p. 45; and Hamad Al Salloom, Director General, Institute of Public Administration, chart of school enrollment by male and female for 1996, compiled from Ministry of Education, Summary Statistics on male education as of 17 November 1996 and General Presidency for Girls' Education, Summary Statistics for all levels of education as of 3 December 1996. (unpublished charts sent by Dr. Al Salloom to author).
30. Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia., Table 12-B, "Total Number of Colleges And Students At The Higher Education Level," p. 68. Even though women represent less than half the total number of post-secondary students, they constitute 55 percent of university graduates, suggesting that women experience a higher rate of success.
31. Van Eeghen, Education in MENA Table 8a, "Tertiary level, enrollment rates as percentage of school age population," p. 39.
32. Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia, pp. 33, 37, and 44.
33. Al Salloom, "The Educational Plan of the Secondary Stage of General Education for Boys in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia," unpublished chart.
34. In informal conversations with college-age students who have been educated in the Saudi public schools, I have been told that in Arabic classes teachers omit almost any kind of modern literature, focusing on classical texts and the Qur'an, and in particular avoiding any literature that discusses women or women's issues.
35. Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia, p. 67. Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University (Riyadh) had about 21,000 students, the Islamic University (Medina), about 3,000, and Umm al-Qura (Mecca), which specializes in religious subjects but also offers teacher training and sciences, about 19,000.
36. Al Salloom, Education in Saudi Arabia, p. 67.
37. Van Eeghen, Education in MENA Table 15 "Literacy, Culture and Communication", p. 48.
38. David Hirst, "Satellite Dishes Officially Forbidden," The Guardian, (London), 3 April 1996, p. 14; reported in FBIS-NES-96-0653, April 1996.
39. "Petitions for Reform in Saudi Arabia," in Empty Reforms, Saudi Arabia's New Basic Laws, Human Rights Watch, May 1992, pp. 59-62. In the preface to the religious petition, the signatories address the king as "Custodian of the Two Holy Shrines" and specifically refer to the ruler's role in upholding shari'a and taking counsel from the 'ulama'. "This government has been distinguished by declaring that it has adopted the shari'a. Scholars have always performed their religious duty of providing counsel to their rulers.".
40. Empty Reforms, p. 60.
41. Mai Yamani, "Women in Saudi Arabia," in Mai Yamani, ed. Feminism and Islam, Legal and Literary Perspectives,(New York: New York University Press, 1996), p. 279.
42. Yamani, p. 279.
43. Khadija and 'A'isha were, respectively, the Prophet's first wife and favorite wife.
44. CDLR Monitor, No. 107, (London: Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights) 8 February 1996.
45. The education policy states that "The purpose of educating a girl is to bring her up in a proper Islamic way so as to perform her duty in life, be an ideal and successful housewife and a good mother with readiness to do things which suit her nature like teaching, nursing and medical treatment." Dr. Abdullah Mohammad Al-Zaid, Education in Saudi Arabia: a model with a difference, (Jeddah: Tihama Publications, 1981), p. 56.
46. Shaikh Abd al-Rahman bin Hammad Al Umar, Islam, The Religion of Truth, (Riyadh: Supreme Head Office for Islamic Research, Ifta, Call and Guidance, 1975) (English translation 1981), p. 51.
47. Ibn Baz: "Women's Work is Quick Road to Adultery." pubished in Al Muslimun (a Saudi religious weekly) quoted from Information Access Company, Arab Press Service Diplomatic Recorder, IAC Newsletter Database, APS Organization, vol. 44, no. 22, 25 June 1996.
48. Muhammad bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Musnad, comp. and ed., Islamic Fatawa Regarding Women, Jamal Al-Din Zarabozo, trans. (Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 1996), p. 310.
49. Al-Musnad, p. 341.
50. Al-Musnad pp. 340-341.
51. Some of the fatwas and rules that emanate from them serve more as ventilation for conservative frustrations than as restrictions to be taken literally. For example, a rule exists in hospitals that women are not to receive medical treatment except with permission from their mahram, but in practice decisions about medical care are made in consultation among the patient, medical staff and family members. In spite of a fatwa issued in 1995 forbidding women to attend conferences, women do go abroad where they are free to do what they like. (Munira Fakhro, "Gulf Women and Islamic Law," in Feminism and Islam, p. 257.) Women university students have not been eligible for scholarship money to study abroad since 1982, but some still do receive scholarships if they pursue a subject not taught in Saudi universities, and others go on their own without government support. When 'Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, issued his 1996 fatwa condemning work outside the home for women, there was a brief period of consternation as to what the fatwa might signify, and then nothing happened.
52. '"Ulama' Reject Cairo Conference," Mecca, Al-Nadwa, (Mecca) 1 September 1994, p.1 and 5.
53. "'Ulama' Reject."p.5.
54. "'Ulama' Reject.", p. 1 and 5. The Council's objections were supported by militant opponents of the Saudi regime, including the CDLR. "Saudi Arabia, Muslim Militants Targeted in Crackdown," Facts on File World News Digest, 22 December 1994.
55. "'Ulama' Reject.", p. 1 and 5. The Council's objections were supported by militant opponents of the Saudi regime, including the CDLR. "Saudi Arabia, Muslim Militants Targeted in Crackdown," Facts on File World News Digest, 22 December 1994.
56. The full text of the fatwa is available in English: "Supreme 'Ulama' Council's statement condemns UN women's conference," Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Radio, Riyadh, (Arabic), 2000 GMT 1 September, 1995, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 4 September, 1995.
57. Rida Muhammad Lari, "Women Are Not Allowed to Take Cabs," Al-Bilad (Jidda, 15 September 1998), p. 5. [quoted in FBIS FTS19980921000085, 21 September 1998.].
58. Al-Ahmadi interview with author.
59. Jamal Khashoggi, "Dialogue on Women's Role Urged," Arab News, (Jidda) (21 April 1999), p. 2.
60. Khashoggi, "Dialogue". "Islamic scholars have every right to present their views," the spokesman said. "We honor their desire to protect religion and morals. But nobody has the right to impose his views on others. Islam is the religion of all Muslims. No decision should be taken on a matter concerning everybody except with consensus.".
61. Hammad bin Hamid al-Salimi, "Where is the Saudi Woman?" Al-Jazirah, (Riyadh) 3 May 1999, p. 13. [quoted in FBIS FTS 19990509000502, 3 May 1999].
62. Author's interview with council member Dr. 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Fayez in Chicago, 5 December 1998.