Missionaries and the Development of a Colonial Ideology of Female Education in India

Gender and History

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 201-221

  Savage, David W ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0011073321     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0424.00055     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. I use the term 'ideology' here to mean the public rationale on the part of colonial practitioners for the activity in which they were engaged.
2. Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (University of Chicago, Chicago, 1988), p. 3.
3. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
4. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
5. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
6. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
7. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
8. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
9. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
10. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
11. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
12. These studies began with Ghulam Murshid, Reluctant Debutante: Response of Bengali Women to Modernization, 1849-1905 (Sahitya Samsad, Dhaka, 1983), and Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). More recent studies informed by critical theory include: Malavika Karlekar, Voices from Within: Early Personal Narratives of Bengali Women (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1991); Himani Bannerji, 'Fashioning a Self: Educational Proposals for and by Women in Popular Magazines in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 26 (26 October 1991); Meera Kosambi, 'Indian Response to Christianity, Church, and Colonialism: Case of Pandita Ramabai', Economic and Political Weekly 27 (24-31 October 1992); Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference- Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity: Public Debates on Domesticity in British Bengal', History Workshop 36 (1993). On gender issues within nationalist discourse, see: Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989); Jasodhara Bagchi, 'Representing Nationalism: Ideology of Motherhood in Colonial Bengal', Economic and Political Weekly 25 (20-27 October 1990), pp. 65-71; Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity', and Samita Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft: Gender and Nationalism in Bengal', Gender & History 5 (1993).
13. On the place of education in the early missionary enterprise see M. A. Laird, Missionaries and Education in Bengal, 1793-1837 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1972). In Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa (University of Chicago, Chicago, 1991), vol. 1, pp. 230-6, Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff show the inseparability of evangelism and education in the strategy of non- conformist missionaries among the Tswana in southern Africa at a comparable early stage.
14. On the place of education in the early missionary enterprise see M. A. Laird, Missionaries and Education in Bengal, 1793-1837 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1972). In Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa (University of Chicago, Chicago, 1991), vol. 1, pp. 230-6, Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff show the inseparability of evangelism and education in the strategy of non-conformist missionaries among the Tswana in southern Africa at a comparable early stage.
15. Ronald Inden, Imagining India (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1990), has most systematically examined this Indological discourse. Homi Bhabha has written about the function of 'fixed' images in colonial discourse; Bhabha, 'The Other Question - the Stereotype and Colonial Discourse', Screen 24 (1983).
16. Ronald Inden, Imagining India (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1990), has most systematically examined this Indological discourse. Homi Bhabha has written about the function of 'fixed' images in colonial discourse; Bhabha, 'The Other Question - the Stereotype and Colonial Discourse', Screen 24 (1983).
17. Resistance to early efforts at female education is well documented in the case of Bengal. See Krishna Lahiri, 'Education of Women in Bengal, 1849-1882' (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp. 39-46; Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women, pp. 74-6.
18. Resistance to early efforts at female education is well documented in the case of Bengal. See Krishna Lahiri, 'Education of Women in Bengal, 1849-1882' (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp. 39-46; Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women, pp. 74-6.
19. Priscilla Chapman, Hindoo Female Education (R. B. Seeley and W. Burnside, London, 1839), p. 86.
20. Examples of an appeal to sympathy are legion. One particularly interesting early one - 'We are bound to extend our "compassion" towards them that are ignorant and out of the way' - is found in An Address on behalf of Native Female Children delivered in connection with the founding of a Ladies Society for Native Female Education, Madras, May 1829, in the archives of the Church Missionary Society, University of Birmingham, CI 2/O/10/C. For early efforts in the much better documented Presidency of Bengal, see Laird, Missionaries and Education in Bengal, pp. 133-41. See also Jogesh Chandra Bagal, Women's Education in Eastern India: The First Phase (The World Press, Calcutta, 1956), which quotes extensively from contemporary documents.
21. Examples of an appeal to sympathy are legion. One particularly interesting early one - 'We are bound to extend our "compassion" towards them that are ignorant and out of the way' - is found in An Address on behalf of Native Female Children delivered in connection with the founding of a Ladies Society for Native Female Education, Madras, May 1829, in the archives of the Church Missionary Society, University of Birmingham, CI 2/O/10/C. For early efforts in the much better documented Presidency of Bengal, see Laird, Missionaries and Education in Bengal, pp. 133-41. See also Jogesh Chandra Bagal, Women's Education in Eastern India: The First Phase (The World Press, Calcutta, 1956), which quotes extensively from contemporary documents.
22. Examples of an appeal to sympathy are legion. One particularly interesting early one - 'We are bound to extend our "compassion" towards them that are ignorant and out of the way' - is found in An Address on behalf of Native Female Children delivered in connection with the founding of a Ladies Society for Native Female Education, Madras, May 1829, in the archives of the Church Missionary Society, University of Birmingham, CI 2/O/10/C. For early efforts in the much better documented Presidency of Bengal, see Laird, Missionaries and Education in Bengal, pp. 133-41. See also Jogesh Chandra Bagal, Women's Education in Eastern India: The First Phase (The World Press, Calcutta, 1956), which quotes extensively from contemporary documents.
23. The Society for Promoting Female Education in China, India, and the East came to be known as the Female Education Society (FES). It was organized in London in 1834 in response to appeals from missionaries in the field and from British wives organized as the Ladies' Society in Calcutta. Margaret Donaldson, '"The Cultivation of the Heart and the Moulding of the Will ...": The Missionary Contribution of the Society for Promoting Female Education in China, India, and the East', in Women in the Church, ed. W. J. Sheils and Diana Wood, Studies in Church History 27 (Basil Blackwell, London, 1990).
24. Rev. Baptist W. Noel, Duties of Christians towards the Female Children of India and the East (Edward Suter, London, 1837), p. 9. Noel was at this time an evangelical Anglican; in 1849 he became a Baptist.
25. Laird, Missionaries and Education, pp. 140-1.
26. Noel, Duties of Christians, pp. 9, 13.
27. For women's philanthropic work see F. K. Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980), especially the chapter 'Little Vessels' which relates children's participation in missionary work.
28. Noel, Duties of Christians, p. 20.
29. Recent literature on social and economic developments in Bengal is summarized in P. J. Marshall, Bengal: the British Bridgehead: Eastern India, 1740-1828 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987).
30. David Kopf, British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance: The Dynamics of Indian Modernization, 1773-1835 (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1969), pp. 178-213; Gautam Chattopadhyay, 'Introduction' to Awakening in Bengal in Early Nineteenth Century (Selected Documents) (Progressive Publishers, Calcutta, 1965). For the religious dimensions of this intellectual ferment, see Arundhati Mukhopadhyay, 'Attitudes towards Religion and Culture in Nineteenth-century Bengal: Tattbabodhini Sabha, 1839-59', Studies in History 3 (1987).
31. David Kopf, British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance: The Dynamics of Indian Modernization, 1773-1835 (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1969), pp. 178-213; Gautam Chattopadhyay, 'Introduction' to Awakening in Bengal in Early Nineteenth Century (Selected Documents) (Progressive Publishers, Calcutta, 1965). For the religious dimensions of this intellectual ferment, see Arundhati Mukhopadhyay, 'Attitudes towards Religion and Culture in Nineteenth-century Bengal: Tattbabodhini Sabha, 1839-59', Studies in History 3 (1987).
32. David Kopf, British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance: The Dynamics of Indian Modernization, 1773-1835 (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1969), pp. 178-213; Gautam Chattopadhyay, 'Introduction' to Awakening in Bengal in Early Nineteenth Century (Selected Documents) (Progressive Publishers, Calcutta, 1965). For the religious dimensions of this intellectual ferment, see Arundhati Mukhopadhyay, 'Attitudes towards Religion and Culture in Nineteenth-century Bengal: Tattbabodhini Sabha, 1839-59', Studies in History 3 (1987).
33. Murshid, Reluctant Debutante, pp. 19-30. On Roy's view of women, see the interesting psychological exposition by Ashis Nandy, 'Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women', in Rammohun Roy and the Process of Modernization in India, ed. V. C. Joshi (Vikas, Delhi, 1975).
34. Murshid, Reluctant Debutante, pp. 19-30. On Roy's view of women, see the interesting psychological exposition by Ashis Nandy, 'Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women', in Rammohun Roy and the Process of Modernization in India, ed. V. C. Joshi (Vikas, Delhi, 1975).
35. Duff tells this story in a letter to Baptist Noel, 19 November 1836, which is printed in an appendix to Noel, Duties of Christians, pp. 41-2. Duff repeated the story in his testimony before the House of Lords Select Committee in 1853.
36. Duff's remarkable achievements feature in many modern studies, in part because he was a prolific and eloquent writer. Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (Columbia University Press, New York, 1989), pp. 48-67, offers the best discussion of Duff's educational strategy. Laird, Missionaries and Education, pp. 179-262, provides the narrative of the origins and development of the Church of Scotland's mission to Bengal. There is as yet no complete modern study of Duff's career. George Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, 2 vols (London, 1879), remains the basic source.
37. Duff's remarkable achievements feature in many modern studies, in part because he was a prolific and eloquent writer. Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (Columbia University Press, New York, 1989), pp. 48-67, offers the best discussion of Duff's educational strategy. Laird, Missionaries and Education, pp. 179-262, provides the narrative of the origins and development of the Church of Scotland's mission to Bengal. There is as yet no complete modern study of Duff's career. George Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, 2 vols (London, 1879), remains the basic source.
38. Duff's remarkable achievements feature in many modern studies, in part because he was a prolific and eloquent writer. Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (Columbia University Press, New York, 1989), pp. 48-67, offers the best discussion of Duff's educational strategy. Laird, Missionaries and Education, pp. 179-262, provides the narrative of the origins and development of the Church of Scotland's mission to Bengal. There is as yet no complete modern study of Duff's career. George Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, 2 vols (London, 1879), remains the basic source.
39. Alexander Duff, Female Education in India (John Johnstone, Edinburgh, 1837).
40. Mrs. Chapman came to India as Miss Wakefield to work with Mrs. Wilson in the Central School. After her marriage she resigned her post, repaid her expenses for passage to the Ladies' Native-Female Education Society, and became honorary secretary of the Ladies' Society. Missionary Register for 1838, pp. 140-1.
41. K. M. Banerjea, Native Female Education (Bishop's College Press, Calcutta, 1841). The prize was offered by Captain Jameson of Baroda and adjudicated by a panel of three Calcutta missionaries. Banerjea also competed successfully for an essay prize on the subject of caste which appeared in the Calcutta Review 25 (1851). Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India (Curzon Press, London, 1980), p. 128. For Banerjea's early life see H. Das, 'The Rev. Krishna Mohan Banerjea: Brahmin, Christian, Scholar and Patriot, 1813-1885', in Bengal: Past and Present 37 & 38 (1929).
42. K. M. Banerjea, Native Female Education (Bishop's College Press, Calcutta, 1841). The prize was offered by Captain Jameson of Baroda and adjudicated by a panel of three Calcutta missionaries. Banerjea also competed successfully for an essay prize on the subject of caste which appeared in the Calcutta Review 25 (1851). Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India (Curzon Press, London, 1980), p. 128. For Banerjea's early life see H. Das, 'The Rev. Krishna Mohan Banerjea: Brahmin, Christian, Scholar and Patriot, 1813-1885', in Bengal: Past and Present 37 & 38 (1929).
43. K. M. Banerjea, Native Female Education (Bishop's College Press, Calcutta, 1841). The prize was offered by Captain Jameson of Baroda and adjudicated by a panel of three Calcutta missionaries. Banerjea also competed successfully for an essay prize on the subject of caste which appeared in the Calcutta Review 25 (1851). Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India (Curzon Press, London, 1980), p. 128. For Banerjea's early life see H. Das, 'The Rev. Krishna Mohan Banerjea: Brahmin, Christian, Scholar and Patriot, 1813-1885', in Bengal: Past and Present 37 & 38 (1929).
44. K. M. Banerjea, Native Female Education (Bishop's College Press, Calcutta, 1841). The prize was offered by Captain Jameson of Baroda and adjudicated by a panel of three Calcutta missionaries. Banerjea also competed successfully for an essay prize on the subject of caste which appeared in the Calcutta Review 25 (1851). Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India (Curzon Press, London, 1980), p. 128. For Banerjea's early life see H. Das, 'The Rev. Krishna Mohan Banerjea: Brahmin, Christian, Scholar and Patriot, 1813-1885', in Bengal: Past and Present 37 & 38 (1929).
45. Chapman notes in her preface that her remarks pertain only to Bengal because of the 'absence of correct information from the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay'; Hindoo Female Education, p. vii. In fact educational work for women was going on in the other presidency towns. John Wilson, a fellow Scottish Presbyterian and contemporary of Duff, started his English school in Bombay in 1832 and in 1838, 1841 and 1842 offered prizes for essays on the importance of female education and domestic reform. These essays were published in the Oriental Christian Spectator. One by Ganpat Lakshuman is particularly notable, for it contains a rather full articulation of the importance of early childhood development and the role of the mother as the moral teacher of the next generation. This essay was reprinted in 1866 and again in 1881 as support for the campaign to allow widow re-marriage. Lakshuman focuses on social reform rather than female education and so has been left out of this analysis. I have found no comparable material of this period emanating from Madras. For early missionary enterprise in South India, see Robert E. Frykenberg, 'Conversion and Crisis of Conscience under Company Raj in South India', Indo-British Review 18 (1990). For the Bombay presidency, see Desai, Girls' School Education. 24. Duff, Female Education, p. 35.
46. Chapman notes in her preface that her remarks pertain only to Bengal because of the 'absence of correct information from the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay'; Hindoo Female Education, p. vii. In fact educational work for women was going on in the other presidency towns. John Wilson, a fellow Scottish Presbyterian and contemporary of Duff, started his English school in Bombay in 1832 and in 1838, 1841 and 1842 offered prizes for essays on the importance of female education and domestic reform. These essays were published in the Oriental Christian Spectator. One by Ganpat Lakshuman is particularly notable, for it contains a rather full articulation of the importance of early childhood development and the role of the mother as the moral teacher of the next generation. This essay was reprinted in 1866 and again in 1881 as support for the campaign to allow widow re-marriage. Lakshuman focuses on social reform rather than female education and so has been left out of this analysis. I have found no comparable material of this period emanating from Madras. For early missionary enterprise in South India, see Robert E. Frykenberg, 'Conversion and Crisis of Conscience under Company Raj in South India', Indo-British Review 18 (1990). For the Bombay presidency, see Desai, Girls' School Education. 24. Duff, Female Education, p. 35.
47. Chapman notes in her preface that her remarks pertain only to Bengal because of the 'absence of correct information from the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay'; Hindoo Female Education, p. vii. In fact educational work for women was going on in the other presidency towns. John Wilson, a fellow Scottish Presbyterian and contemporary of Duff, started his English school in Bombay in 1832 and in 1838, 1841 and 1842 offered prizes for essays on the importance of female education and domestic reform. These essays were published in the Oriental Christian Spectator. One by Ganpat Lakshuman is particularly notable, for it contains a rather full articulation of the importance of early childhood development and the role of the mother as the moral teacher of the next generation. This essay was reprinted in 1866 and again in 1881 as support for the campaign to allow widow re-marriage. Lakshuman focuses on social reform rather than female education and so has been left out of this analysis. I have found no comparable material of this period emanating from Madras. For early missionary enterprise in South India, see Robert E. Frykenberg, 'Conversion and Crisis of Conscience under Company Raj in South India', Indo-British Review 18 (1990). For the Bombay presidency, see Desai, Girls' School Education. 24. Duff, Female Education, p. 35.
48. Chapman notes in her preface that her remarks pertain only to Bengal because of the 'absence of correct information from the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay'; Hindoo Female Education, p. vii. In fact educational work for women was going on in the other presidency towns. John Wilson, a fellow Scottish Presbyterian and contemporary of Duff, started his English school in Bombay in 1832 and in 1838, 1841 and 1842 offered prizes for essays on the importance of female education and domestic reform. These essays were published in the Oriental Christian Spectator. One by Ganpat Lakshuman is particularly notable, for it contains a rather full articulation of the importance of early childhood development and the role of the mother as the moral teacher of the next generation. This essay was reprinted in 1866 and again in 1881 as support for the campaign to allow widow re-marriage. Lakshuman focuses on social reform rather than female education and so has been left out of this analysis. I have found no comparable material of this period emanating from Madras. For early missionary enterprise in South India, see Robert E. Frykenberg, 'Conversion and Crisis of Conscience under Company Raj in South India', Indo-British Review 18 (1990). For the Bombay presidency, see Desai, Girls' School Education. 24. Duff, Female Education, p. 35.
49. In this short address on female education Duff cites few specific references. The sources which shaped his views are specified in the preface to his more extensive treatment of Hinduism published two years later as India and India Missions: including Sketches of the Gigantic System of Hinduism both in Theory and Practice (J. Johnstone, Edinburgh, 1839). In this larger work there is no mention of female education. It is remarkable and symptomatic of nineteenth-century adherence to separate spheres conventions that Duff, even while arguing for the centrality of the woman's social position, treats the question of female education in a separate text derived from a speech before a female audience.
50. Duff, India and Indian Missions, p. 10. Duff cites the translation of the Code of Manu made by Halhed.
51. Duff's source is a pamphlet published in 1822 by the Calcutta Corresponding Committee of the Church Missionary Society entitled Native Female Education. See Laird, Missionaries and Education, p. 134.
52. Banerjea uses a common nineteenth-century corruption of 'help-meet' found in the King James translation of Genesis 2:18. The position of subordination that this implies is discussed in Phyllis Tribble, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality (Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1978), p. 90.
53. Banerjea, Native Female Education, pp. 76-7.
54. Banerjea, Native Female Education, pp. 78-81. Banerjea generalizes; he does not indicate specific examples.
55. Banerjea, Native Female Education, pp. 81-5. A lukewarm review of Banerjea's book appearing in the leading Bombay missionary journal shows the dislike among missionaries in Western India of the elitist tendencies emanating from Calcutta; Oriental Christian Spectator, 13 (July 1842), pp. 316-17.
56. Banerjea, Native Female Education, pp. 81-5. A lukewarm review of Banerjea's book appearing in the leading Bombay missionary journal shows the dislike among missionaries in Western India of the elitist tendencies emanating from Calcutta; Oriental Christian Spectator, 13 (July 1842), pp. 316-17.
57. Chapman, Hindoo Female Education, pp. 2-3.
58. Janaki Nair, 'Uncovering the Zenana: Visions of Indian Womanhood in English-women's Writings, 1813-1940', Journal of Women's History 2 (1990). For another discussion of images of the zenana, see Karlekar, Voices from Within, pp. 47-60; Karlekar uses the term 'antahpur' rather than zenana.
59. Janaki Nair, 'Uncovering the Zenana: Visions of Indian Womanhood in English- women's Writings, 1813-1940', Journal of Women's History 2 (1990). For another discussion of images of the zenana, see Karlekar, Voices from Within, pp. 47-60; Karlekar uses the term 'antahpur' rather than zenana.
60. The precise origin of the zenana image is difficult to determine. Charles Grant, writing in 1792, emphasized the European's lack of knowledge about the 'domestic recesses of the Hindoos' while insinuating gross laxity of sexual morality, but he does not describe the physical space. The Abbe Dubois, the earliest popular authority on south India, does not mention it and notes that while the Hindu woman lives a quiet and retired life her seclusion is not complete. The prison metaphor begins to emerge in missionary reports. Ward in 1822 describes the windows of the rooms occupied by the family as 'mere air-holes, through which the women may be seen peeping as through the gratings of a jail'; William Ward, A view of the History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos (Serampore, 1822), p. 192.
61. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Hutchinson and University of Chicago Press, London and Chicago, 1987), p. 115.
62. Duff, Female Education, p. 18.
63. 'There is no feature in the countenance displeasing, though we should observe that they seldom attain to beauty, or the expression which excites admiration.' Chapman, Hindoo Female Education, p. 17.
64. Banerjea, Native Female Education, pp. 72-5.
65. Inden, Imagining India, pp. 85-130.
66. The whole question of the relationship of Christianity and Culture is fraught with complication and variation, especially when seen in a colonial context. See Stanley, The Bible and the Flag, pp. 157-62.
67. Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest, pp. 60-7, writes perceptively about the assumptions underlying the curriculum Duff devised for his schools in Calcutta. The aim of moral development common to all education in the Victorian period required a blending of religious and secular study. Stefan Collini, 'The Idea of "Character"', in Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991), notes that even in the British context the concept of 'character' presupposed a common moral code despite vast differences among people.
68. Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest, pp. 60-7, writes perceptively about the assumptions underlying the curriculum Duff devised for his schools in Calcutta. The aim of moral development common to all education in the Victorian period required a blending of religious and secular study. Stefan Collini, 'The Idea of "Character"', in Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991), notes that even in the British context the concept of 'character' presupposed a common moral code despite vast differences among people.
69. Duff, Female Education, p. 18. The totalist aim of Christian missions was commonly stated. For example: 'To rule over a people and keep them in subjection to external law, is but a small thing compared to the attempt to change their thoughts and feelings, their minds, their beliefs, and characters.' Rev. William Miller, Female Education in Southern India (Lorimer & Gillies, Edinburgh, 1878), p. 3.
70. Duff, Female Education, p. 18. The totalist aim of Christian missions was commonly stated. For example: 'To rule over a people and keep them in subjection to external law, is but a small thing compared to the attempt to change their thoughts and feelings, their minds, their beliefs, and characters.' Rev. William Miller, Female Education in Southern India (Lorimer & Gillies, Edinburgh, 1878), p. 3.
71. Church Missionary Intelligencer 11 (March 1860), p. 62. This sentiment echoes the warnings given earlier by missionaries like Duff: 'Give them knowledge without religion, according to the present government plan, and they will become a nation of infidels.' Alexander Duff, The Church of Scotland's India Mission (John Waugh, Edinburgh, second edition, 1836), p. 33.
72. Church Missionary Intelligencer 11 (March 1860), p. 62. This sentiment echoes the warnings given earlier by missionaries like Duff: 'Give them knowledge without religion, according to the present government plan, and they will become a nation of infidels.' Alexander Duff, The Church of Scotland's India Mission (John Waugh, Edinburgh, second edition, 1836), p. 33.
73. The terms of this debate are outlined in David W. Savage, 'Evangelical Education Policy in Britain and India, 1857-60', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 22 (1994).
74. Church Missionary Intelligencer 22 (March 1860), p. 62.
75. Report on Public Instruction in Bengal for the year 1849-50, in Selections from Educational Records II, 1840-1859, ed. J. A. Richey (Superintendent Government Printing, Calcutta, 1920), p. 61. The complaint persists into the twentieth century. 'The negative influence of the home is often found to be the strongest in the student life of the great Christian colleges, and many an earnest man has fallen back from what he seemed to have gained because of a silent, unseen woman.' Mina G. Cowan, The Education of the Women of India (Flemming H. Revell, New York, 1912), p. 240. Other examples of the same point are cited in Nair, 'Uncovering the Zenana', p. 15.
76. Report on Public Instruction in Bengal for the year 1849-50, in Selections from Educational Records II, 1840-1859, ed. J. A. Richey (Superintendent Government Printing, Calcutta, 1920), p. 61. The complaint persists into the twentieth century. 'The negative influence of the home is often found to be the strongest in the student life of the great Christian colleges, and many an earnest man has fallen back from what he seemed to have gained because of a silent, unseen woman.' Mina G. Cowan, The Education of the Women of India (Flemming H. Revell, New York, 1912), p. 240. Other examples of the same point are cited in Nair, 'Uncovering the Zenana', p. 15.
77. Report on Public Instruction in Bengal for the year 1849-50, in Selections from Educational Records II, 1840-1859, ed. J. A. Richey (Superintendent Government Printing, Calcutta, 1920), p. 61. The complaint persists into the twentieth century. 'The negative influence of the home is often found to be the strongest in the student life of the great Christian colleges, and many an earnest man has fallen back from what he seemed to have gained because of a silent, unseen woman.' Mina G. Cowan, The Education of the Women of India (Flemming H. Revell, New York, 1912), p. 240. Other examples of the same point are cited in Nair, 'Uncovering the Zenana', p. 15.
78. Partha Chatterjee, 'Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India', American Ethnologist 16 (1989), shows how the distinction between the home and the world (ghar and bahir) was appropriated in Indian nationalist discourse to form a 'new patriarchy' in which men must continually compromise with western ways in the world and women become the guardians of Indian spiritual values in the home. Although Chatterjee does not make the point, this can be seen as a mirror image of the missionary zenana strategy.
79. C. Hall, 'The Early Formation of Victorian Domestic Ideology', in Fit Work for Women, ed. Sandra Burman (St. Martin's, New York, 1979), See further discussion in Dror Wahrman, 'Middle-Class Domesticity Goes Public: Gender, Class and Politics from Queen Caroline to Queen Victoria', Journal of British Studies 32 (1993).
80. C. Hall, 'The Early Formation of Victorian Domestic Ideology', in Fit Work for Women, ed. Sandra Burman (St. Martin's, New York, 1979), See further discussion in Dror Wahrman, 'Middle-Class Domesticity Goes Public: Gender, Class and Politics from Queen Caroline to Queen Victoria', Journal of British Studies 32 (1993).
81. For the historical background and social setting for this evangelical domesticity literature, see Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, pp. 107-18, 149-92.
82. Evangelical Christendom 12 (January 1858), p. 10.
83. J. E. D. Bethune, quoted in Tarak Nath Talukdar, History and Register of Krishnagar College, 1846-1945 (West Bengal Government Press, Alipore, 1950), p. 6.
84. '[Female education] and the vast influence which it has exercised in the Western Hemisphere upon the civilization, prosperity and happiness of European nations are great facts, and so universally acknowledged as to need no demonstration. It is believed that this influence will be even greater, if possible, in Eastern countries, where all the earliest and most lasting impressions of infancy and childhood are now produced and fostered by uneducated and superstitious mothers.' Report on Public Instruction in Bengal, 1849-50, in Richey, Selections, pp. 60-1.
85. '[Female education] and the vast influence which it has exercised in the Western Hemisphere upon the civilization, prosperity and happiness of European nations are great facts, and so universally acknowledged as to need no demonstration. It is believed that this influence will be even greater, if possible, in Eastern countries, where all the earliest and most lasting impressions of infancy and childhood are now produced and fostered by uneducated and superstitious mothers.' Report on Public Instruction in Bengal, 1849-50, in Richey, Selections, pp. 60-1.
86. House of Lords, Select Committee. 1852-1853 Session, paras 5817, 6818, 7436.
87. B. D. Bhatt and J. C. Aggarwal (eds) Educational Documents in India, 1813-1977 (Arya Book Depot, Delhi, 1977), p. 10.
88. The most notable effort at secular female education was the Bethune School in Calcutta. While the Bethune School eventually became the best known women's institution in colonial Bengal, the experiment was not a marked success in the 1850s and 1860s, nor was it widely imitated. Bagal, Women's Education, pp. 79-96. The school's difficulties in its early years are noted in Karlekar, Voices from Within, pp. 154-62, 174.
89. The most notable effort at secular female education was the Bethune School in Calcutta. While the Bethune School eventually became the best known women's institution in colonial Bengal, the experiment was not a marked success in the 1850s and 1860s, nor was it widely imitated. Bagal, Women's Education, pp. 79-96. The school's difficulties in its early years are noted in Karlekar, Voices from Within, pp. 154-62, 174.
90. Letter from Duff, 19 November 1836, printed in appendix to Noel, Duties of Christians, pp. 41-2.
91. Banerjea, Native Female Education, pp. 96-101.
92. The Rev. John Fordyce, 'Emancipation of Woman in India', Calcutta Christian Observer 1 (January 1855). Fordyce's speech given in Calcutta in 1854 was regarded as foundational in the zenana movement. It was reprinted in The Indian Female Evangelist 8 (January 1886). Yet the strategy can be found clearly articulated fifteen years earlier by Duff in a review of Chapman's book written for the Calcutta Christian Observer 1 (March 1840), p. 124, and in Banerjea's essay.
93. The Rev. John Fordyce, 'Emancipation of Woman in India', Calcutta Christian Observer 1 (January 1855). Fordyce's speech given in Calcutta in 1854 was regarded as foundational in the zenana movement. It was reprinted in The Indian Female Evangelist 8 (January 1886). Yet the strategy can be found clearly articulated fifteen years earlier by Duff in a review of Chapman's book written for the Calcutta Christian Observer 1 (March 1840), p. 124, and in Banerjea's essay.
94. The Rev. John Fordyce, 'Emancipation of Woman in India', Calcutta Christian Observer 1 (January 1855). Fordyce's speech given in Calcutta in 1854 was regarded as foundational in the zenana movement. It was reprinted in The Indian Female Evangelist 8 (January 1886). Yet the strategy can be found clearly articulated fifteen years earlier by Duff in a review of Chapman's book written for the Calcutta Christian Observer 1 (March 1840), p. 124, and in Banerjea's essay.
95. The impetus behind the movement of British women into the mission field is less thoroughly examined than that of American women. For suggestions see Brian Heeney, The Women's Movement in the Church of England, 1850-1930 (Clarendon, Oxford, 1988), and Alan Deacon and Michael Hill, 'The Problem of "Surplus Women" in the Nineteenth Century: Secular and Religious Alternatives', Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain 5 (1972). For the American phenomenon, see Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984). The founding dates for 'Ladies' Associations' are: Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East, 1834; Church of Scotland Ladies' Association, 1843; Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society Women's Auxiliary, 1858; Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society (primarily Church of England), 1858; Society For the Propagation of the Gospel Ladies' Association, 1866; Baptist Missionary Society, 1867; London Missionary Society (Congregationalist), 1875.
96. The impetus behind the movement of British women into the mission field is less thoroughly examined than that of American women. For suggestions see Brian Heeney, The Women's Movement in the Church of England, 1850-1930 (Clarendon, Oxford, 1988), and Alan Deacon and Michael Hill, 'The Problem of "Surplus Women" in the Nineteenth Century: Secular and Religious Alternatives', Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain 5 (1972). For the American phenomenon, see Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984). The founding dates for 'Ladies' Associations' are: Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East, 1834; Church of Scotland Ladies' Association, 1843; Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society Women's Auxiliary, 1858; Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society (primarily Church of England), 1858; Society For the Propagation of the Gospel Ladies' Association, 1866; Baptist Missionary Society, 1867; London Missionary Society (Congregationalist), 1875.
97. The impetus behind the movement of British women into the mission field is less thoroughly examined than that of American women. For suggestions see Brian Heeney, The Women's Movement in the Church of England, 1850-1930 (Clarendon, Oxford, 1988), and Alan Deacon and Michael Hill, 'The Problem of "Surplus Women" in the Nineteenth Century: Secular and Religious Alternatives', Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain 5 (1972). For the American phenomenon, see Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984). The founding dates for 'Ladies' Associations' are: Society for the Promotion of Female Education in the East, 1834; Church of Scotland Ladies' Association, 1843; Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society Women's Auxiliary, 1858; Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society (primarily Church of England), 1858; Society For the Propagation of the Gospel Ladies' Association, 1866; Baptist Missionary Society, 1867; London Missionary Society (Congregationalist), 1875.
98. Thomas Smith, 'Zenana Schools', The Indian Female Evangelist 6 (January 1881), pp. 2-3.
99. The Calcutta Review 49 (September 1855), pp. 90-1.
100. Books and periodical articles seeking reasons for disaffection are legion beginning in 1890s, stimulated, in part, by Curzon's attempts at educational reform in the first decade of the twentieth century. See, for instance, W. Lee-Warner, The Citizen of India (Macmillan, London, 1897); Arthur Mayhew, The Education of India: A Study of British Educational Policy in India, 1835-1920, and its Bearing on National Life and Problems in India To-day (Faber and Gwyer, London, 1926);
101. Books and periodical articles seeking reasons for disaffection are legion beginning in 1890s, stimulated, in part, by Curzon's attempts at educational reform in the first decade of the twentieth century. See, for instance, W. Lee-Warner, The Citizen of India (Macmillan, London, 1897); Arthur Mayhew, The Education of India: A Study of British Educational Policy in India, 1835-1920, and its Bearing on National Life and Problems in India To-day (Faber and Gwyer, London, 1926);
102. and the discussion of Curzon's reforms in Aparna Basu, The Growth of Education and Political Development in India, 1898-1920 (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1974).
103. Report of the Calcutta University Commission, 1917-19, 2, part 1 (Calcutta, 1919), p. 1.
104. Krishna Kumar, Political Agenda of Education: A Study of Colonialist and Nationalist Ideas (Sage, New Delhi, 1991), ch. 2. Ellen McDonald has pointed out the importance of character building as an official educational goal even in science education in the Bombay Presidency; Ellen E. McDonald, 'English Education and Social Reform in Late Nineteenth-century Bombay: A Case Study of the Transmission of a Cultural Ideal', Journal of Asian Studies 25 (1966).
105. Krishna Kumar, Political Agenda of Education: A Study of Colonialist and Nationalist Ideas (Sage, New Delhi, 1991), ch. 2. Ellen McDonald has pointed out the importance of character building as an official educational goal even in science education in the Bombay Presidency; Ellen E. McDonald, 'English Education and Social Reform in Late Nineteenth-century Bombay: A Case Study of the Transmission of a Cultural Ideal', Journal of Asian Studies 25 (1966).
106. Sen, 'Motherhood and Mothercraft'.
107. Karlekar, Voices from Within.
108. Dipesh Chakrabarty, 'The Difference-Deferral of (a) Colonial Modernity'.