His Finest Hour? Elsenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis

Diplomatic History

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 27-54

  Little, Douglas ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0011028377     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00251.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (144)

1. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
2. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
3. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
4. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
5. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
6. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
7. See, for example, Robert Stookey, America and the Arab States: An Uneasy Encounter (New York, 1975), 156-57; William Quandt, "Lebanon, 1958, and Jordan, 1970," in Force without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument, ed. Barry M. Bleehman and Stephen S. Kaplan (Washington, 1978), 225-57; William Bragg Ewald, Jr., Eisenhower the President: Crucial Days, 1951-1960 (Englewood Cliffs, 1981), 241-42; Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York, 1981), 101-4; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, Vol. 2, The President (New York, 1984), 470-73; H. W. Brands, Cold Warriours: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1988), 100-13 ; and idem, The Spetter of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York, 1990), 293-96.
8. Dwight D. Elsenhower, Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Garden City, 1965), 290. For a sympathetic appraisal of Ike's decision making and an examination of the "operational code" employed by his national security advisers see Alan Dowry, Middle East Crisis: U.S. Decision-Making in 1958, 1970, and 1973 (Berkeley, 1984), 25-108.
9. Dwight D. Elsenhower, Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Garden City, 1965), 290. For a sympathetic appraisal of Ike's decision making and an examination of the "operational code" employed by his national security advisers see Alan Dowry, Middle East Crisis: U.S. Decision-Making in 1958, 1970, and 1973 (Berkeley, 1984), 25-108.
10. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
11. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
12. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
13. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
14. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
15. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
16. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
17. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
18. For accounts critical of various aspects of Ike's handling of the Lebanese crisis see especially Richard J. Barnet, Intervention and Revolution: The United States in the Third World (New York, 1968), 140-51; Malcolm Kerr, "The Lebanese Civil War," in International Regulation of Civil Wars, ed. Evan Luard (New York, 1972), 65-90; D. Cameron Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain's Place, 1900-1975 (New York, 1984), 134-35; Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times (New York, 1986), 356-60; Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101:3 (1986): 465-66; Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 186-90; Michael Bishku, "The 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon: A Historical Assessment," American-Arab Affairs 31 (Winter 1989/1990): 106-19; Irene Gendzier, "The Declassified Lebanon, 1948-1958: Elements of Continuity and Contrast in US Policy toward Lebanon," in The Middle East and North Afrrica: Essays in Honor of J. C. Hurewitz, ed. Reeva S. Simon (New York, 1990), 187-209; and Erika Alin, The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis: American Intervention in the Middle East (Lanham, MD, 1994), passim.
19. Thomas J. Abercrombie, "Young-old Lebanon Lives by Trade," National Geographic Magazine 113 (April 1958): 479-523.
20. Kahim I. Qubain, Crisis in Lebanon (Washington, 1961), 16-22; Leila M. T. Meo, Lebanon, Improbable Nation: A Study in Political Development (Bloomington, 1965), 82-85; Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (Berkeley, 1988), 182-87.
21. Kahim I. Qubain, Crisis in Lebanon (Washington, 1961), 16-22; Leila M. T. Meo, Lebanon, Improbable Nation: A Study in Political Development (Bloomington, 1965), 82-85; Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (Berkeley, 1988), 182-87.
22. Kahim I. Qubain, Crisis in Lebanon (Washington, 1961), 16-22; Leila M. T. Meo, Lebanon, Improbable Nation: A Study in Political Development (Bloomington, 1965), 82-85; Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (Berkeley, 1988), 182-87.
23. Wadsworth tel. to Department of State, 24 November 1943, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1943 (Washington, 1964), 4:1046-47 (hereafter FRUS, with year and volume).
24. Wadsvvorth to Loy Henderson (NEA), 11 July 1945, General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, file: 890E.00/7-1145. National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter RG 59, with filing information).
25. On ARAMCO in Lebanon see Douglas Little, "Pipeline Politics: America, TAP-LINE, and the Arabs," Business History Review 64 (Summer 1990): 267-68. Pinkerton is quoted in Irene Gendzier, "No Forum for the Lebanese People: US Perceptions from Lebanon, 1945-1947," Middle East Report 20 (January/February 1990): 35.
26. On ARAMCO in Lebanon see Douglas Little, "Pipeline Politics: America, TAP-LINE, and the Arabs," Business History Review 64 (Summer 1990): 267-68. Pinkerton is quoted in Irene Gendzier, "No Forum for the Lebanese People: US Perceptions from Lebanon, 1945-1947," Middle East Report 20 (January/February 1990): 35.
27. See, for example, Warren Austin (USUN) tel. to Department of State, 1 December 1947, FRUS, 1947 (Washington, 1971), 5:1295-94; and Pinkerton to Department of State, 12 December 1947, RG 59, 890E.00/12-1247.
28. Pinkerton tels. to Department of State, 12 January and 3 March 1948, RG 59, 890E.008/1-1248 and 890E.00/3-348.
29. SWNCC, "Long-Range Assistance to Lebanon," 8 June 1948, RG 59, 890E.00/6-848.
30. CIA, SR-13, "Arab States," 27 September 1949, CIA Office of Information and Privacy Coordination, Washington, DC.
31. Pinkerton to Department of State, 11 October 1950, RG 59, 611.83A/10-1150.
32. Michael C. Hudson, The Precarious Republic: Political Modernization in Lebanon (New York, 1968), 105-8, 135-55.
33. Eyal Zisser, "The Downfall of the Khuri Administration: A Dubious Revolution," Middle Eastern Studies 30 (July 1994): 486-511.
34. Department of State, "Policy Statement: Lebanon," 29 January 1951, RG 59, 611.83A/1-2051.
35. Charge James Lobenstine (Beirut) tel. to Department of State, 23 September 1952, FRUS, 1952-1954 (Washington, 1986), 9:1008-9.
36. Department of State, OIR Report #4308, "Biographies of the Lebanese Cabinet," 5 February 1947, OSS/State Department Intelligence & Research Reports, Part 7: The Middle East, microfilm edition (Frederick, MD, 1977), reel 2, item 14.
37. Samuel Kopper (USUN) to Austin, 14 March 1948, FRUS, 1948 (Washington, 1975), 5:723-24.
38. Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and African Affairs Henry Byroade to John Foster Dulles, 26 January 1953, RG 59, 611.83A/1-2653.
39. Department of State briefing paper, "Lebanon," 5 May 1953, FRUS, 1952-1954 9:1211-13.
40. Department of State memorandum of conversation, 16 May 1953, FRUS, 1952-1954 9:64-67.
41. Department of State, "Malik-Dulles Conversations," 3 April 1955, FRUS, 1952-1954: Memoranda of the Conversations of the Secretary of State (microfiche supplement) (Washington, 1992), item 98.
42. Department of State memorandum of conversation, 17 May 1955, FRUS, 1952-1954 9:77.
43. Chargé John Emmerson (Beirut) tel. to Department of State. 11 October 1995, and Department of State tel. to Emmerson, 28 October 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 (Washington, 1988), 13:177-78.
44. JCS 2099/261, 8 May 1956, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:188-91.
45. Radford to Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson, 23 May 1956, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:191n.8.
46. Department of State tel. to Ambassador Donald Heath (Beirut), 25 May 1956, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:191-92.
47. Heath tel. to Department of State, 20 November 1956, quoted in editorial note 129, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:192.
48. On the origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine see Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 177-83; and Brands, Specter of Neutralism, 282-89.
49. On the origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine see Thomas G. Paterson, Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan (New York, 1988), 177-83; and Brands, Specter of Neutralism, 282-89.
50. For the Syrian reaction see Ambassador James Moose tel. to Department of State, 11 January 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:609-10.
51. Heath tel. to Department of State, 13 January 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:196-97.
52. Richards tel. to Department of State, 15 and 16 March 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:208-11.
53. David Atlee Phillips, The Night Watch: 25 Years of Peculiar Service (New York, 1977), 67-73.
54. Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations: The Amorality of Power Politics (New York, 1969), 226-27; Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America's Failure in the Middle East (New York, 1980), 248. See also William Blum, The CIA, a Forgotten History: US Global Interventions since World War 2 (London, 1986), 103-7.
55. Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations: The Amorality of Power Politics (New York, 1969), 226-27; Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America's Failure in the Middle East (New York, 1980), 248. See also William Blum, The CIA, a Forgotten History: US Global Interventions since World War 2 (London, 1986), 103-7.
56. Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations: The Amorality of Power Politics (New York, 1969), 226-27; Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America's Failure in the Middle East (New York, 1980), 248. See also William Blum, The CIA, a Forgotten History: US Global Interventions since World War 2 (London, 1986), 103-7.
57. Minutes of the 319th NSC Meeting, 11 April 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 15:212.
58. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 250.
59. Middle East Journal 11 (Summer 1957): 300. Richard Parker, who manned the State Department's operations center during the July 1958 crisis in Lebanon, confirmed long afterward that the CIA had helped precipitate the political upheaval in Beirut by encouraging Chamoun to "rig the election the previous year [1957] in a scandalous way." Richard Parker Oral History Interview, Foreign Service Oral History Project, Georgetown University, Washington, DC.
60. OCB, "Operations Plan for Lebanon," 31 July 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:213-16.
61. Sam Pope Brewer Diary, 31 August 1957, Sam Pope Brewer Papers, box 24, Wisconsin State Historical Society, Madison, Wisconsin.
62. William Rountree (NEA) to Dulles, 12 September 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:216-17.
63. Department of State to Heath, 13 September 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:217-18; White House Staff Note #191, 19 September 1957, Ann Whitman Files, Dwight D. Eisenhower Diary Series, box 27, folder: "Sept. 1957 Toner Notes," Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
64. Hudson, Precarious Republic, 156-57; Helena Cobban, The Making of Modern Lebanon (Boulder, 1985), 87; Alin, United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 57-59. Chamoun, on the other hand, termed his critics "sore losers" who "cried scandal" and "dismissed the success of the government by pretending that the 1957 elections had been stolen," when in reality the "secret of the government's success" had been a Lebanese backlash against "Nasserite acts of terrorism." Camille Chamoun, Crise an Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1963), 383-85 (my translation).
65. Hudson, Precarious Republic, 156-57; Helena Cobban, The Making of Modern Lebanon (Boulder, 1985), 87; Alin, United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 57-59. Chamoun, on the other hand, termed his critics "sore losers" who "cried scandal" and "dismissed the success of the government by pretending that the 1957 elections had been stolen," when in reality the "secret of the government's success" had been a Lebanese backlash against "Nasserite acts of terrorism." Camille Chamoun, Crise an Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1963), 383-85 (my translation).
66. Hudson, Precarious Republic, 156-57; Helena Cobban, The Making of Modern Lebanon (Boulder, 1985), 87; Alin, United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 57-59. Chamoun, on the other hand, termed his critics "sore losers" who "cried scandal" and "dismissed the success of the government by pretending that the 1957 elections had been stolen," when in reality the "secret of the government's success" had been a Lebanese backlash against "Nasserite acts of terrorism." Camille Chamoun, Crise an Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1963), 383-85 (my translation).
67. Hudson, Precarious Republic, 156-57; Helena Cobban, The Making of Modern Lebanon (Boulder, 1985), 87; Alin, United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 57-59. Chamoun, on the other hand, termed his critics "sore losers" who "cried scandal" and "dismissed the success of the government by pretending that the 1957 elections had been stolen," when in reality the "secret of the government's success" had been a Lebanese backlash against "Nasserite acts of terrorism." Camille Chamoun, Crise an Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1963), 383-85 (my translation).
68. Department of State memorandum of conversation, 17 October 1957, FRUS, 1955-1957 13:219-20.
69. Department of State Staf Study, "United States Objectives & Policies with Respect to the Near East," 31 October 195", FRUS, 1955-1957 (Washington, 1991), 12:640-41.
70. Stephen Dorsey (U.S. coordinator for the Litani River irrigation project), quoted in Sam Pope Brewer Diary, 23 November 1957, Brewer Papers, Wisconsin State Historical Society.
71. Department of State, "Staff Study on NSC 5801," 16 January 1958, "NSC Policy Papers," Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (hereafter OSANSA), Eisenhower Library.
72. Ambassador Robert McClintock (Beirut) tel. to Department of State, 30 January 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 (Washington, 1992), 11:8-9.
73. McClintock tel. to Department of State, 9 January 1958, RG 59, 611.80/1-958; McClintock tel. to Department of State, 16 January 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:3-5.
74. Edward Waggoner (NEA) to Stuart Rockwell (NEA), 17 January 1958, and McClintock tel. to Department of State, 21 February 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:5-7, 10-13.
75. McClintock tel. to Department of State, 5 March 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:14-16.
76. McClintock to Department of State, 20 March 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:18-19.
77. Department or State tel. to McClintock, 18 March 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:17.
78. Cumming to Dulles, 15 April 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11 (microfiche supplement) (Washington, 1992), item 11.
79. CIA, "Assessment of the Political Situation in Lebanon," 4 April 1958, quoted in Alin, United States & the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 73-74; McClintock tel. to Department of State, 25 April 1958, FRUS, 1958-1990, 11 (microfiche supplement), item 19.
80. CIA, "Assessment of the Political Situation in Lebanon," 4 April 1958, quoted in Alin, United States & the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 73-74; McClintock tel. to Department of State, 25 April 1958, FRUS, 1958-1990, 11 (microfiche supplement), item 19.
81. CIA, "Assessment of the Political Situation in Lebanon," 4 April 1958, quoted in Alin, United States & the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, 73-74; McClintock tel. to Department of State, 25 April 1958, FRUS, 1958-1990, 11 (microfiche supplement), item 19.
82. Dulles memorandum of conversation, 2 May 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:27-28.
83. McClintock tel. to Department of State, 4 May 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:28-30.
84. McClintock tels. (2) to Department of State, 11 May 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:35-38.
85. McClintock tel. to Department of State, 12 May 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:40-41.
86. Department of State memorandum of conversation, "Lebanese Crisis," 13 May 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:45-48; Andrew Goodpaster memorandum of conversation, 15 May 1958, Ann Whitman Files, DDE Diary Series, box 33, folder: "Staff Notes (2)-May 1958."
87. Department of State tel. to McClintock, 13 May 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:49-50.
88. Department of State tel. to McClintock, 10 June 1958, Ann Whitman Files, International Series, folder: "Lebanon (2)"; Department of State to McClintock, 15 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:128-29.
89. Rountree quoted in Department of State memorandum of conversation, "Situation in Lebanon," 9 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:104-6.
90. U.S. Embassy Beirut to Department of State, 20 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:163n.4.
91. Meo, Lebanon, Improbable Nation, 179-80; editorial note 66, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:107-8.
92. Meo, Lebanon, Improbable Nation, 179-80; editorial note 66, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:107-8.
93. Dulles phone call to Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald Quarles, 14 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:116-17.
94. Department of State memorandum of conversation, "Lebanon," 15 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:133-37.
95. Dulles to McClintock, 16 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:142.
96. Eisenhower to Paul Hoffman, 23 June 1958, Ann Whitman Files, DDE Diary Series, box 33, folder: "Staff Notes (2)-June 1958."
97. Department of State memorandum of conversation, "The Situation in Lebanon," 23 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:171-75.
98. Dulles's remarks of 23 June, as quoted by Carl Marcy, chief counsel of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, on 26 June 1958, in U.S. Senate, Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (Historical Series) (Washington, 1975-93), 10:475-78.
99. Dulles memorandum of conversation, 7 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:200-201; diary entry for 9 July 1958, in Cyrus R. Sulzberger, The Last of the Giants (New York, 1970), 492.
100. Dulles memorandum of conversation, 7 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:200-201; diary entry for 9 July 1958, in Cyrus R. Sulzberger, The Last of the Giants (New York, 1970), 492.
101. McClintock to Department of State, 10 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:204-5.
102. Chamoun, Crise au Moyen-Orient, 42 3-24 (my translation).
103. McClintock to Department of State, 14 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:207-8, 215-16.
104. Allen W. Dulles, "Briefing Notes," 14 July 1958, CIA Research Reports: The Middle East, 1946-1976, microfilm edition, ed. Paul Kesaris (Frederick, MD, 1981), reel 1. Ironically, most of the Saudi warning has been excised from the version of this document published in 1993. See FRUS, 1958-1960 (Washington, 1993), 12:308-11.
105. Allen W. Dulles, "Briefing Notes," 14 July 1958, CIA Research Reports: The Middle East, 1946-1976, microfilm edition, ed. Paul Kesaris (Frederick, MD, 1981), reel 1. Ironically, most of the Saudi warning has been excised from the version of this document published in 1993. See FRUS, 1958-1960 (Washington, 1993), 12:308-11.
106. "Meeting re Iraq," 9:30 A.M., 14 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:209-11.
107. Robert Cutler, No Time for Rest (Boston, 1966), 362-63. Cutler served as Eisenhower's special assistant for national security affairs during the 1958 crisis.
108. Goodpaster memorandum of conversation, 10:50 A.M., 14 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:211-15.
109. Department of State memorandum of conversation, "United States Military Intervention in Lebanon," 14 July 1958, RG 59, 783A.00/7-1458.
110. Goodpaster memorandum of conversation, 2:35 P.M., 14 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:218-26.
111. Assistant Secretary of Defense John Irwin to Deputy Undersecretary of State Robert Murphy, 6 February 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:9-10.
112. E. M. Rose (Eastern Department), "Lebanon," 9 May 1958, General Records of the Foreign Office, Record Class FO 371, 134156, Public Record Office, Kew. England (hereafter FO 371, with volume number); JCS 2293/1, "Review of Actions Related to U.S. Military Intervention in Lebanon (U)," 23 October 1958, Declassified Documents Reference System, 1983 (microfiche edition) (Washington, 1983), item 2324.
113. Rountree to Dulles, 17 June 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 1:150-52.
114. "Conversation between the President and Prime Minister," 10:30 P.M., 14 July 1958, FO 371, 134159. For the White House version of the conversation, which also contains the reference to Pandora's box, see FRUS, 1958-1960 11:231-34.
115. Goodpaster memorandum of conversation, 9:00 A.M., 15 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:244-45.
116. McClintock to Department of State, 15 July 1958, and McClintock to CINCNELM, 15 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:247-49.
117. Charles W. Thayer, Diplomat (New York, 1959), 31-34; Robert McClintock, The Meaning of Limited War (New York, 1967), 108-10.
118. Charles W. Thayer, Diplomat (New York, 1959), 31-34; Robert McClintock, The Meaning of Limited War (New York, 1967), 108-10.
119. For the background to the 1958 crisis in Jordan see Uriel Dann, King Hussein and the Challenge of Arab Radicalism, 1955-1967 (New York, 1989), 78-95; Michael B. Oren, "The Test of Suez: Israel and the Middle East Crisis of 1958," Studies in Zionism 12:1 (1991): 55-83; and Ritchie Ovendale, "Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958," International History Review 16 (May 1994): 285-90.
120. For the background to the 1958 crisis in Jordan see Uriel Dann, King Hussein and the Challenge of Arab Radicalism, 1955-1967 (New York, 1989), 78-95; Michael B. Oren, "The Test of Suez: Israel and the Middle East Crisis of 1958," Studies in Zionism 12:1 (1991): 55-83; and Ritchie Ovendale, "Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958," International History Review 16 (May 1994): 285-90.
121. For the background to the 1958 crisis in Jordan see Uriel Dann, King Hussein and the Challenge of Arab Radicalism, 1955-1967 (New York, 1989), 78-95; Michael B. Oren, "The Test of Suez: Israel and the Middle East Crisis of 1958," Studies in Zionism 12:1 (1991): 55-83; and Ritchie Ovendale, "Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958," International History Review 16 (May 1994): 285-90.
122. Chargé Paul Mason (Amman) to Foreign Office, 15 July 1958, Records of the Prime Minister's Office, Record Class PREM 11, folder 2380, PRO (hereafter FRFM 11, with folder); Chargé Thomas Wright (Amman) to Department of State, 15 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:302-3.
123. Chargé Thomas Wright (Amman) to Department of State, 16 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:312-14.
124. Macmillan quoted in James Lunt, Hussein of Jordan: Searching for a Just and Lasting Peace (New York, 1989), 50-51.
125. Lloyd to Macmillan, 16 Julv 1958, PREM 11, folder 2380; Dulles-Macmillan telephone conversation, 16 July 1958, and Department of State memorandum of conversation, 17 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:316, 317-18.
126. Ovendale, "Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan," 292-98.
127. Lloyd to Macmillan, 17 July 1958, PREM 11, folder 2380; Department of State memorandum of conversation, 17 July 1958. FRUS, 1958-1960 12:776-78.
128. Foreign Office Levant Department, "Review of Middle East Problems Bearing upon the Supply of Oil to the Free World," 10 May 1957, FO 371, 127757.
129. Donald Riches (Levant Department) minute, 5 June 1958. FO 317-133789.
130. Eisenhower to Macmillan, 18 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:330-31.
131. Lloyd memorandum of conversation, 19 July 1958, FO 371, 133823.
132. Minutes of the 373d NSC Meeting, 24 July 1958, Ann Whitman Files, NSC Series.
133. Chargé Talcott Seelve (Kuwait) to Department of State, 3 August 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 12:778-80.
134. Selwyn Lloyd, "Kuwait: International Relations," 4 November 1958, Cabinet Papers, CAB 129/95, PRO.
135. The Morse, Kennedy, and Humphrey remarks are in "Situation in the Middle East," 15 July 1958, Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee 10:506-7.
136. Fulbright's and Morse's comments art in "The Situation in the Middle East," 15 July 1958, Executice Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee 10:510-11.
137. Humphrey's, Morses, Fulbright's, and Herter's remarks of 16 July 1958 are all in Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee 10:527, 532-34, 539, 543.
138. SNIE 30-2-58, "The Middle East Crisis," 22 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 12:87-93.
139. Eisenhower to George M. Humphrey, 22 July 1958, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:305.
140. Kennedy's and Mansfield's remarks of 16 July 1958 are in Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee 10:526-27, 550-51.
141. McClintock to Department of State, 31 July 1958, Department of State memorandum of conversation, 16 August 1958, and editorial note 557, FRUS, 1958-1960 11:415-18, 481-85, 615.
142. Eisenhower, Waging Peace, 288-89; Ovendale, "Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan," 300-302.
143. Eisenhower, Waging Peace, 288-89; Ovendale, "Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan," 300-302.
144. Department of State memorandum of conversation, "Middle East," 22 March 1959, FRUS, 1958-1960 12:218.