Parties, states and patronage

West European Politics

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 433-457

  Kristinsson, Gunnar Helgi ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0010968295     PISSN: 01402382     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402389608425145     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. J. Simpson, Spoils of Power (Toronto: Collins Publishers 1988) p.6.
2. E. Gellner, 'Patrons and Clients' in E. Gellner and J. Waterbury (eds.) Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies (London: Duckworth 1977) p.3.
3. Cf. M. Tolchin and S. Tolchin, To the Victor ... Political Patronage from the Clubhouse to the White House (NY: Random House 1971); Simpson (note 1); R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton UP 1993); B. Chubb, 'Going about persecuting civil servants: the role of the Irish parliamentary representative', Political Studies 11/3 (1963); G. H. Kristinsson, Embaettismenn og stjornmalamenn (Reykjavik: Mal og manning 1994).
4. Cf. M. Tolchin and S. Tolchin, To the Victor ... Political Patronage from the Clubhouse to the White House (NY: Random House 1971); Simpson (note 1); R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton UP 1993); B. Chubb, 'Going about persecuting civil servants: the role of the Irish parliamentary representative', Political Studies 11/3 (1963); G. H. Kristinsson, Embaettismenn og stjornmalamenn (Reykjavik: Mal og manning 1994).
5. Cf. M. Tolchin and S. Tolchin, To the Victor ... Political Patronage from the Clubhouse to the White House (NY: Random House 1971); Simpson (note 1); R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton UP 1993); B. Chubb, 'Going about persecuting civil servants: the role of the Irish parliamentary representative', Political Studies 11/3 (1963); G. H. Kristinsson, Embaettismenn og stjornmalamenn (Reykjavik: Mal og manning 1994).
6. Cf. M. Tolchin and S. Tolchin, To the Victor ... Political Patronage from the Clubhouse to the White House (NY: Random House 1971); Simpson (note 1); R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton UP 1993); B. Chubb, 'Going about persecuting civil servants: the role of the Irish parliamentary representative', Political Studies 11/3 (1963); G. H. Kristinsson, Embaettismenn og stjornmalamenn (Reykjavik: Mal og manning 1994).
7. M. Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1978) p. 1133. See also W. Wright, 'Comparative Party Models: Rational-Efficient and Party-Democratic', in idem (ed.) A Comparative Study of Party Organization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merhill 1971) and L. Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1980).
8. M. Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1978) p. 1133. See also W. Wright, 'Comparative Party Models: Rational-Efficient and Party-Democratic', in idem (ed.) A Comparative Study of Party Organization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merhill 1971) and L. Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1980).
9. M. Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1978) p. 1133. See also W. Wright, 'Comparative Party Models: Rational-Efficient and Party-Democratic', in idem (ed.) A Comparative Study of Party Organization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merhill 1971) and L. Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1980).
10. E.g. D. Weimer and A. Vining, Policy Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 1989) Ch.A.
11. Especially M. Shefter, 'Party and Patronage: Germany, England and Italy', Politics and Society 7/4 (1977) pp.403-51.
12. P. Dunleavy and B. O'Leary, Theories of the State (London: Macmillan 1987).
13. Ibid, pp.327-34.
14. B. Silberman, Cages of Reason (U. of Chicago Press 1993).
15. This definition is for the most part similar to the one offered by Shefter, note 6, p.403), except that it includes small groups along with individuals. Definitions of patronage which frame it in terms of asymmetric power relations, as some authorities do, seem to me both too vague and too theoretically loaded. On the other hand, too narrow a definition (e.g. confining it to jobs and contracts) risks losing some of its major forms.
16. L. Komito, 'Irish Clientelism: A Reappraisal', Economic and Social Review 15/3 (1984) p. 176.
17. J. Waterbury, 'An attempt to put patrons and clients in their place' in Gellner and Waterbury (note 2) p.336.
18. S. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients and Friends (Cambridge: CUP 1984).
19. See Epstein (note 4) and F. Sorauf, 'The Silent Revolution in Patronage', Public Administration Review 20/1 (1960) pp.28-34.
20. J. Scott, Comparative Political Corruption (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 1972).
21. K. Strom, 'Deferred Gratification and Minority Governments in Scandinavia', Legislative Studies Qtly 11/4 (1986); L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg (eds.), Byråkrater i Norden (Åbo Akademi 1983).
22. K. Strom, 'Deferred Gratification and Minority Governments in Scandinavia', Legislative Studies Qtly 11/4 (1986); L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg (eds.), Byråkrater i Norden (Åbo Akademi 1983).
23. S. Kristjansson, 'Sjalfstaedisflokkurinn og Reykjavikurborg', Thjodlif 2/1 (1986).
24. G.H. Kristinsson, H. Sveinsdottir and H. Jonsson, Atvinnustefna a Islandi 1959-1991 (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1992); G.A. Gunnarsson, Industrial Policy in Iceland 1944-1974 (unpub. PhD. thesis, London School of Economics 1989); J. Asgeirsson, Thjod i hafti (Reykjavik: Almenna bokafelagid 1986).
25. G.H. Kristinsson, H. Sveinsdottir and H. Jonsson, Atvinnustefna a Islandi 1959-1991 (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1992); G.A. Gunnarsson, Industrial Policy in Iceland 1944-1974 (unpub. PhD. thesis, London School of Economics 1989); J. Asgeirsson, Thjod i hafti (Reykjavik: Almenna bokafelagid 1986).
26. G.H. Kristinsson, H. Sveinsdottir and H. Jonsson, Atvinnustefna a Islandi 1959-1991 (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1992); G.A. Gunnarsson, Industrial Policy in Iceland 1944-1974 (unpub. PhD. thesis, London School of Economics 1989); J. Asgeirsson, Thjod i hafti (Reykjavik: Almenna bokafelagid 1986).
27. Th. Eggertsson, 'Repressed Financial Systems as Instruments of Taxation: Evidence from Iceland', Finnish Economic Papers, 3/1 (1990); Kristinsson et al. (note 18).
28. S. Olafsson, 'Variations within the Scandinavian Model: Iceland in a Scandinavian Comparison' in E. Hansen et. al. (eds.) Welfare Trends in the Scandinavian Countries (NY: M.E. Sharpe 1993).
29. I. Johansson and J. Sveinsson, Islenska husnaediskerfid (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1986).
30. Although Iceland since 1959 has had a system of proportional representation, the system is devised so as to maintain the under-representation of the two urban constituencies in the South-West, and the over-representation of the six regional constituencies. Even after minor reforms of the system in 1984 and 1995, the two-thirds of the electorate residing in the South-West elect only 49 per cent of the parliamentary representatives.
31. The election study was carried out at the U. of Iceland, under the directorship of Olafur Th. Hardarson. The question on patronage (reflecting a certain amount of debate prior to the election) was: 'Do you agree or disagree with the contention that patronage politics are necessary because of those who are at a disadvantage in dealing with the system - or don't you have an opinion on that?'
32. Kristinsson (note 3) pp. 160-4.
33. Idem et. al. (1992) (note 18).
34. S. Olafsson, Lifskjor og lifshaettir a Nordurlondum (Reykjavik: Idunn 1990) p.79.
35. P. Katzenstein, Small States in World Markets (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1985), and D. Cameron, 'The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis' in The American Political Science Review 72/4 (1978) pp. 1243-61.
36. P. Katzenstein, Small States in World Markets (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1985), and D. Cameron, 'The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis' in The American Political Science Review 72/4 (1978) pp. 1243-61.
37. S. Olafsson, Modernisation and Social Stratification in Iceland (unpub. D.Phil, thesis, U. of Oxford 1982).
38. On Iceland, see S. Kristjansson, Fra flokksraedi til personustjornmala (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1994).
39. Cf. H. Bakvis, 'The Canadian Paradox: Party System Stability in the Face of a Weakly Aligned Electorate' and R. Carty 'Ireland: From Predomination to Competition', both in S. Wolinetz (ed.) Parties and Parly Systems in Liberal Democracies (London: Routledge 1988). On Iceland, see O. Th. Hardarson, Parties and Voters in Iceland (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1995). The impact of party organisation on policy-making is studied through a comparative content analysis of the election manifestos of the Icelandic Progressive Party and those of the Swedish and Norvegian Farmers'/Centre Parties in G.H. Kristinsson, Farmers' Parties (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1991).
40. Cf. H. Bakvis, 'The Canadian Paradox: Party System Stability in the Face of a Weakly Aligned Electorate' and R. Carty 'Ireland: From Predomination to Competition', both in S. Wolinetz (ed.) Parties and Parly Systems in Liberal Democracies (London: Routledge 1988). On Iceland, see O. Th. Hardarson, Parties and Voters in Iceland (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1995). The impact of party organisation on policy-making is studied through a comparative content analysis of the election manifestos of the Icelandic Progressive Party and those of the Swedish and Norvegian Farmers'/Centre Parties in G.H. Kristinsson, Farmers' Parties (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1991).
41. Cf. H. Bakvis, 'The Canadian Paradox: Party System Stability in the Face of a Weakly Aligned Electorate' and R. Carty 'Ireland: From Predomination to Competition', both in S. Wolinetz (ed.) Parties and Parly Systems in Liberal Democracies (London: Routledge 1988). On Iceland, see O. Th. Hardarson, Parties and Voters in Iceland (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1995). The impact of party organisation on policy-making is studied through a comparative content analysis of the election manifestos of the Icelandic Progressive Party and those of the Swedish and Norvegian Farmers'/Centre Parties in G.H. Kristinsson, Farmers' Parties (Reykjavik: Felagsvisindastofnun 1991).
42. E.g. C. Collins, 'Clientelism and Carreerism in Irish Local Government: The Persecution of Civil Servants Revisited', Economic and Social Review 16/4 (1985) pp.273-86.
43. B. Chubb, The Government and Politics of Ireland, 2nd. ed. (London: Longman 1982).
44. Collins (note 31).
45. See Th. Vilhjalmsson, 'Forholdet mellem embedsmænd og politikere i et lilies amfund', Nordisk Administrativt Tidskrift, 54/3-4 (1973); A. Bragadottir, 'Eiga kenningar almannavalsskolans vid a Islandi?', Samfelagstidindi Vol. 12 (1992) pp.101-30.
46. See Th. Vilhjalmsson, 'Forholdet mellem embedsmænd og politikere i et lilies amfund', Nordisk Administrativt Tidskrift, 54/3-4 (1973); A. Bragadottir, 'Eiga kenningar almannavalsskolans vid a Islandi?', Samfelagstidindi Vol. 12 (1992) pp.101-30.
47. Kristinsson, Embaettismenn og stjornmalamenn, p. 71.
48. Ibid. p. 109.
49. Th. Magnusson, 'The Icelandic Althingi and Its Standing Committees' (unpub. PhD thesis, U. of Exeter 1987) pp. 381-4.
50. D. Arter, The Nordic Parliaments (London: C. Hurst 1984) p.303.
51. R. Rose, 'The Role of Law in Comparative Perspective', Studies in Public Policy 106 (Strathclyde: Centre for the Study of Public Policy 1982) p.9.
52. Magnusson (note 37) p.287.
53. E.g. Bragadottir (note 34).
54. Kristinsson (note 3) pp.92-7.
55. Gellner (note2)p.1.
56. J. Aberach, R. Putnam and B. Rockman, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP 1981).
57. E. Amenta and T. Skocpol, 'Taking Exception. Explaining the Distinctiveness of American Public Policy in the Last Century' in F. Castles (ed.) The Comparative History of Public Policy (Cambridge: Polity Press 1989).
58. Shefter (note 6) p.416.
59. P. Richards, Patronage in British Government (London: Allen & Unwin 1963).
60. Simpson (note 1) p.38.
61. Bakvis (note 30) p.259.
62. There is a gap of several decades in Iceland from the introduction of near universal male suffrage (1903) or universal suffrage (1915) and the mobilisation of party organisations in the 1930s. On account of the small size of most constituencies, individual candidates had relatively little need for formal organisations during the first decades of the century.
63. Kristinsson (note 30) Ch.8.
64. The People's Alliance was formed as a political party in 1968, but it had existed since 1956 as an electoral alliance of the United Socialist Party (f. 1938) and a splinter group from the Social Democratic Party. The United Socialist Party in turn was formed through the unification of the Communist Party (f. 1930) and another splinter group from the Social Democratic Party.
65. In 1987, 76 per cent of People's Alliance voters were opposed to patronage, and 24 per cent for it. Among Independence Party voters there were 63 per cent against and 37 per cent for patronage; among Social Democratic voters 62 per cent against and 38 per cent for; and among Progressive Party voters 53 per cent against and 47 per cent for patronage.lt should be added that in the 1987 election the Independence Party split when one of its leading patronage politicians - a self-proclaimed champion of the little man - formed the Citizens' Party. Among Citizens' Party voters, there were 22 per cent against patronage and 78 per cent in favour of it. (Kristinsson [note 3] p. 167).
66. T. Garvin, 'Political Cleavages, Party Politics and Urbanisation in Ireland: The Case of the Periphery-Dominated Centre', European Jnl of Political Research 2 (1974) p.325.
67. Arter (note 38) p.284.
68. Cf. Strom (note 16); and P. Lægreid and J. Olsen, Byråkrati og beslutninger (Bergen: Universitetsforlaget 1978).
69. L. Mjeldheim, Politiske prosessar og institusjonar, 2nd ed. (ibid. 1979) pp. 142-3.
70. J. Seip, Fra embedsmansstat til ettpartistat og andre essays (Oslo: ibid. 1963).
71. S. Rokkan, 'Geography, religion and Social Class: Crosscutting Cleavages in Norwegian Politics' in S. Lipset and S. Rokkan (eds.) Party Systems and Voter Alignments (NY: The Free Press 1967) p.395.
72. R. Alapuro, 'Nineteenth Century Nationalism in Finland: A Comparative Perspective', Scandinavian Political Studies 2/1 (1979); R. Alapuro, State and Revolution in Finland (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1988).
73. R. Alapuro, 'Nineteenth Century Nationalism in Finland: A Comparative Perspective', Scandinavian Political Studies 2/1 (1979); R. Alapuro, State and Revolution in Finland (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1988).
74. J. Nousiainen, Finlands Politiska Partier (Helsingfors: Holger Schildts Förlag 1969).
75. Idem, 'Bureaucratic tradition, semi-presidential rule and parliamentary government: the case of Finland', European Jnl of Political Research, 16/2 (1988) pp.229-249.
76. K. Ståhlberg, 'Den partipolitiska förvaltningen', Finsk Tidskrift 4-5 (1979); A. Hannus, 'Om de politiska tjänstetilsättningama', Nordisk Administrativt Tidsskrift 61/1 (1980) pp.93-101; L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg, 'Jämförelser' in Lundquist and Ståhlberg (note 16); P. Pesonen and A. Thomas, 'Coalition Formation in Scandinavia' in V. Bogdanor (ed.) Coalition Governments in Western Europe (London: Heineman 1983); L. Westerlund, Statsbygge och distriktsförvaltning (Åbo Akademis Förlag 1989).
77. K. Ståhlberg, 'Den partipolitiska förvaltningen', Finsk Tidskrift 4-5 (1979); A. Hannus, 'Om de politiska tjänstetilsättningama', Nordisk Administrativt Tidsskrift 61/1 (1980) pp.93-101; L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg, 'Jämförelser' in Lundquist and Ståhlberg (note 16); P. Pesonen and A. Thomas, 'Coalition Formation in Scandinavia' in V. Bogdanor (ed.) Coalition Governments in Western Europe (London: Heineman 1983); L. Westerlund, Statsbygge och distriktsförvaltning (Åbo Akademis Förlag 1989).
78. K. Ståhlberg, 'Den partipolitiska förvaltningen', Finsk Tidskrift 4-5 (1979); A. Hannus, 'Om de politiska tjänstetilsättningama', Nordisk Administrativt Tidsskrift 61/1 (1980) pp.93-101; L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg, 'Jämförelser' in Lundquist and Ståhlberg (note 16); P. Pesonen and A. Thomas, 'Coalition Formation in Scandinavia' in V. Bogdanor (ed.) Coalition Governments in Western Europe (London: Heineman 1983); L. Westerlund, Statsbygge och distriktsförvaltning (Åbo Akademis Förlag 1989).
79. K. Ståhlberg, 'Den partipolitiska förvaltningen', Finsk Tidskrift 4-5 (1979); A. Hannus, 'Om de politiska tjänstetilsättningama', Nordisk Administrativt Tidsskrift 61/1 (1980) pp.93-101; L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg, 'Jämförelser' in Lundquist and Ståhlberg (note 16); P. Pesonen and A. Thomas, 'Coalition Formation in Scandinavia' in V. Bogdanor (ed.) Coalition Governments in Western Europe (London: Heineman 1983); L. Westerlund, Statsbygge och distriktsförvaltning (Åbo Akademis Förlag 1989).
80. K. Ståhlberg, 'Den partipolitiska förvaltningen', Finsk Tidskrift 4-5 (1979); A. Hannus, 'Om de politiska tjänstetilsättningama', Nordisk Administrativt Tidsskrift 61/1 (1980) pp.93-101; L. Lundquist and K. Ståhlberg, 'Jämförelser' in Lundquist and Ståhlberg (note 16); P. Pesonen and A. Thomas, 'Coalition Formation in Scandinavia' in V. Bogdanor (ed.) Coalition Governments in Western Europe (London: Heineman 1983); L. Westerlund, Statsbygge och distriktsförvaltning (Åbo Akademis Förlag 1989).
81. D. Arter, 'The Finnish Centre Party: Profile of a Hinge Group', West European Politics 2/1 (Jan. 1979) pp.108-27. See also his, Bumpkin Against Bigwig. The Emergence of a Green Movement in Finnish Politics (Tampereen Yliopisto 1978).
82. D. Arter, 'The Finnish Centre Party: Profile of a Hinge Group', West European Politics 2/1 (Jan. 1979) pp.108-27. See also his, Bumpkin Against Bigwig. The Emergence of a Green Movement in Finnish Politics (Tampereen Yliopisto 1978).
83. V. Helander and D. Anckar, Consultation and Political Culture (Helsinki: Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters 1983).
84. Chubb (note 32) p.237.
85. P. Pyne, 'The Bureaucracy in the Irish Republic: Its Political Role and the Factors Influencing It, Political Studies 22/1 (1974) p.30.
86. P. Mair, 'The Autonomy of the Political', Comparative Politics 11/3 (1979) p.458.
87. Chubb (note 32) p.264; Kristinsson (note 3) p. 125.
88. Lundquist and Ståhlberg (note 63) p.235.