Toward an International Relations Theory with Chinese Characteristics?

Issues and Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 1-28

  Chan, Gerald ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Chinese characteristics; Culture; International relations theory; National interests; Power

Indexed keywords

EID: 0010653807     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. This article is due to appear in a different form as a chapter in a forthcoming book authored by myself Chinese Perspectives on International Relations: A Framework for Analysis (Basingstoke: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999). Throughout the article, I have adopted the system of giving first the surnames of Chinese and Japanese individuals, followed by their given names. Most of the English translations of Chinese texts quoted in the article are mine.
2. Ni Shixiong, Feng Shaolei, and Jin Yingzhong, Shiji fengyun de chan'er - Dangdai guoji guanxi lilun (An offspring of the turbulent century - Contemporary international relations theory) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Press, 1989), 230.
3. Yang Yunzhong, "The Development Pattern of International Relations," Henan shehui kexue (Henan Social Sciences) (Zhengzhou) 1994, no. 1.
4. Smith's review of A.J.R. Groom and Margot Light, eds., Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory (London: Pinter Publishers, 1994), in Millennium: Journal of International Studies 24, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 154.
5. Smith's review of A.J.R. Groom and Margot Light, eds., Contemporary International Relations: A Guide to Theory (London: Pinter Publishers, 1994), in Millennium: Journal of International Studies 24, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 154.
6. Ken Booth, "Dare Not to Know: International Relations Theory versus the Future," in International Relations Theory Today, ed. Ken Booth and Steve Smith (University Park, Penn.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 333.
7. Stanley Hoffman, "An American Social Science: International Relations," in International Theory: Critical Investigations, ed. James Der Derian (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 240.
8. For some background reading, see Gerald Chan, "International Studies in China: Origins and Development," Issues & Studies 33, no. 2 (February 1997): 40-64.
9. Jiang Zemin's report at the CCP's Fifteenth National Congress on September 12, 1997, Beijing Review, October 6-12, 1997, 10-33.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Wang Dong, "Create a New Theory of Modernization with Chinese Characteristics," Beijing daxue xuebao (Journal of Beijing University, Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 1994, no. 4:11-21.
13. Yi Jianguo, "A Framework of Agricultural Modernization with Chinese Characteristics," Dangdai shijie yu shehuizhuyi (Contemporary World and Socialism), 1995, no. 1:45-48.
14. Chen Mokai et al., eds., Jianshe you Zhongguo tese de shehuizhuyi gaodeng jiaoyu lilun lungang (An analysis of the construction of a theory of higher education with Chinese characteristics) (Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1994).
15. Wang Deren, "A Round-Table Discussion on Research on International Relations," Waijiao xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Foreign Affairs College), 1995, no. 1:20.
16. Jia Yongxuan, "Neorealism in International Relations and International Political Economy," Guoji guanxi xueyuan xuebao (Journal of the Institute of International Relations), 1994, no. 4:12; Chen Bida and Xu Yuemei, "An Outline of Economics of International Political Relations," Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi (World Economics and Politics), 1996, no. 6:16-20.
17. Jia Yongxuan, "Neorealism in International Relations and International Political Economy," Guoji guanxi xueyuan xuebao (Journal of the Institute of International Relations), 1994, no. 4:12; Chen Bida and Xu Yuemei, "An Outline of Economics of International Political Relations," Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi (World Economics and Politics), 1996, no. 6:16-20.
18. Zhang Yahang, "An Appraisal of General Conflict Theory," Guowai zhengzhixue (Foreign Political Studies), 1988, no. 1:29.
19. Yan Feng, "Construct a Study of IR History with Chinese Characteristics," Waijiao xueyuan xuebao, 1995, no. 3:66-67.
20. Liu Xiaolin, "Theoretical Study on Exploring an Everlasting Peace for Mankind," Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi, 1995, no. 4:50.
21. Wang Huning, Wang Huning ji (Anthology of Wang Huning) (Harbin: Heilongjiang Educational Press, 1989), 311.
22. Liu Fei, "Sinicizing Sociology and the Functioning of Chinese Society," Zhongguo renmin daxue xuebao (Journal of the People's University of China), 1994, no. 2:54-57.
23. Hong Yunshan, "Construct a Theory of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics," Dangdai shijie yu shehuizhuyi, 1994, no. 4:1-4.
24. Ibid., 2.
25. Ibid., 3.
26. Zhao Yuliang, Zhao Xiaochun, and Chu Shulong, "A Summary of the Shanghai Seminar on Theory of International Relations," Xiandai guoji guanxi (Contemporary International Relations), 1987, no. 4:3-6. Emphasis added.
27. Liu Tongshun, "Preface" to Ni, Feng, and Jin, Shiji fengyun de chan'er.
28. According to China Daily (July 24, 1996, 1), a total of 250,000 Chinese scholars were studying or had studied in 103 countries or regions (since the late 1970s) and by the end of 1995, more than 80,000 of them had returned to China.
29. Wang Lian, "A Summary of an Academic Conference on 'The Development of a Theory of International Relations with Chinese Characteristics'," Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu (Studies of International Politics), 1994, no. 3:44-47.
30. A collection of their papers and those participants from China and Hong Kong was published in Kua shiji de tiaozhan: Zhongguo guoji guanxi xueke de fazhan (Facing the challenge of the twenty-first century: International relations studies in China), ed. Yuan Ming (Chongqing: Chongqing Press, 1992).
31. Based at the George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
32. For a summary report of the conference, see Chu Feng, "China and the World in the Twenty-first Century," Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, 1995, no. 1:53-57.
33. Liang Shoude, "A Discussion of the Study of International Politics with Chinese Characteristics," Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, 1994, no. 1:15. My emphasis. Also see Liang Shoude, "Constructing an International Relations Theory with Chinese Characteristics," and Song Xinning, "International Relations Theory-Building in China," Political Science (Wellington, New Zealand) 49, no. 1 (July 1997): 23-39 and 40-61, respectively.
34. Liang Shoude, "A Discussion of the Study of International Politics with Chinese Characteristics," Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, 1994, no. 1:15. My emphasis. Also see Liang Shoude, "Constructing an International Relations Theory with Chinese Characteristics," and Song Xinning, "International Relations Theory-Building in China," Political Science (Wellington, New Zealand) 49, no. 1 (July 1997): 23-39 and 40-61, respectively.
35. Liang Shoude, "A Discussion of the Study of International Politics with Chinese Characteristics," Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, 1994, no. 1:15. My emphasis. Also see Liang Shoude, "Constructing an International Relations Theory with Chinese Characteristics," and Song Xinning, "International Relations Theory-Building in China," Political Science (Wellington, New Zealand) 49, no. 1 (July 1997): 23-39 and 40-61, respectively.
36. As for China's international position, Liang cites the facts that China is the largest developing country, a rising major power, a socialist country in the initial phase of transition to socialism, and the only country with a "one country, two systems" polity. See Ye Zicheng, "In Search of China's International Strategy in the Twenty-first Century," Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, 1997, no. 4:2.
37. Liang, "A Discussion of the Study of International Politics with Chinese Characteristics," 15.
38. Ibid., 15-21; He Fang, "A Sea Change in the World Structure and the Chinese Discipline of International Relations," in Yuan, Kua shiji de tiaozhan, 15-18; Wang, "A Summary of an Academic Conference," 44-47; Zhao, Zhao, and Chu, "A Summary of the Shanghai Seminar," 3-5; and Tian Zhili, "A Summary Record of a Conference on International Relations Theory," Zhengzhixue yanjiu (Study of Politics), 1987, no. 6:55-59.
39. Ibid., 15-21; He Fang, "A Sea Change in the World Structure and the Chinese Discipline of International Relations," in Yuan, Kua shiji de tiaozhan, 15-18; Wang, "A Summary of an Academic Conference," 44-47; Zhao, Zhao, and Chu, "A Summary of the Shanghai Seminar," 3-5; and Tian Zhili, "A Summary Record of a Conference on International Relations Theory," Zhengzhixue yanjiu (Study of Politics), 1987, no. 6:55-59.
40. Ibid., 15-21; He Fang, "A Sea Change in the World Structure and the Chinese Discipline of International Relations," in Yuan, Kua shiji de tiaozhan, 15-18; Wang, "A Summary of an Academic Conference," 44-47; Zhao, Zhao, and Chu, "A Summary of the Shanghai Seminar," 3-5; and Tian Zhili, "A Summary Record of a Conference on International Relations Theory," Zhengzhixue yanjiu (Study of Politics), 1987, no. 6:55-59.
41. Ibid., 15-21; He Fang, "A Sea Change in the World Structure and the Chinese Discipline of International Relations," in Yuan, Kua shiji de tiaozhan, 15-18; Wang, "A Summary of an Academic Conference," 44-47; Zhao, Zhao, and Chu, "A Summary of the Shanghai Seminar," 3-5; and Tian Zhili, "A Summary Record of a Conference on International Relations Theory," Zhengzhixue yanjiu (Study of Politics), 1987, no. 6:55-59.
42. Ibid., 15-21; He Fang, "A Sea Change in the World Structure and the Chinese Discipline of International Relations," in Yuan, Kua shiji de tiaozhan, 15-18; Wang, "A Summary of an Academic Conference," 44-47; Zhao, Zhao, and Chu, "A Summary of the Shanghai Seminar," 3-5; and Tian Zhili, "A Summary Record of a Conference on International Relations Theory," Zhengzhixue yanjiu (Study of Politics), 1987, no. 6:55-59.
43. For a critical analysis of China's national interests, see Yan Xuetong, Zhongguo guojia liyi fenxi (Analysis of China's national interests) (Tianjin: Tianjin People's Press, 1996).
44. Liang, "A Discussion of the Study of International Politics with Chinese Characteristics," 19. See also Ren Yue, "Sovereignty in Chinese Foreign Policy: Principle and Practice," in China Review 1996, ed. Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper, and Tsang Shu-ki (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1996), 145-74 .
45. Liang, "A Discussion of the Study of International Politics with Chinese Characteristics," 19. See also Ren Yue, "Sovereignty in Chinese Foreign Policy: Principle and Practice," in China Review 1996, ed. Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper, and Tsang Shu-ki (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1996), 145-74 .
46. Zhong Cai, ed., Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zhiding guomin jingji he shehui fazhan "jiuwu" jihua he 2010 nian yuanjing mubiao de jianyi (mingci shuyu jieshi) (The proposal of the CCP Central Committee on the ninth five-year plan for national economic and social development and long-term goals by 2010 [a terminological explanation]) (Beijing: People's Press, 1995), 37, quoted in Zheng Yongnian, "Comprehensive National Power: An Expression of China's New Nationalism," in China's Political Economy, ed. Wang Gungwu and John Wong (Singapore: Singapore University Press and World Scientific, 1998), 192.
47. Zhong Cai, ed., Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zhiding guomin jingji he shehui fazhan "jiuwu" jihua he 2010 nian yuanjing mubiao de jianyi (mingci shuyu jieshi) (The proposal of the CCP Central Committee on the ninth five-year plan for national economic and social development and long-term goals by 2010 [a terminological explanation]) (Beijing: People's Press, 1995), 37, quoted in Zheng Yongnian, "Comprehensive National Power: An Expression of China's New Nationalism," in China's Political Economy, ed. Wang Gungwu and John Wong (Singapore: Singapore University Press and World Scientific, 1998), 192.
48. Wang Shuofeng, "An Analysis of Comprehensive National Power," Baike zhishi (Encyclopedic Knowledge), 1989, no. 6:7.
49. Wang, "A Summary of an Academic Conference," 46.
50. Wang Yizhou, "Basis and Methodology," Ouzhou (Europe), 1995, no. 3:86-87.
51. See, for example, Steve Smith, "The Self-Images of a Discipline: A Genealogy of International Relations Theory," in Booth and Smith, International Relations Theory Today, 11; Iver B. Neumann, "John Vincent and the English School of International Relations," in The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? ed. Iver B. Neumann and Ole Wæver (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), chap. 2; and K.J. Holsti, "America Meets the 'English School': State Interests in International Society," Mershon International Studies Review 41, Supplement 2 (November 1997): 275-80.
52. See, for example, Steve Smith, "The Self-Images of a Discipline: A Genealogy of International Relations Theory," in Booth and Smith, International Relations Theory Today, 11; Iver B. Neumann, "John Vincent and the English School of International Relations," in The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? ed. Iver B. Neumann and Ole Wæver (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), chap. 2; and K.J. Holsti, "America Meets the 'English School': State Interests in International Society," Mershon International Studies Review 41, Supplement 2 (November 1997): 275-80.
53. See, for example, Steve Smith, "The Self-Images of a Discipline: A Genealogy of International Relations Theory," in Booth and Smith, International Relations Theory Today, 11; Iver B. Neumann, "John Vincent and the English School of International Relations," in The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? ed. Iver B. Neumann and Ole Wæver (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), chap. 2; and K.J. Holsti, "America Meets the 'English School': State Interests in International Society," Mershon International Studies Review 41, Supplement 2 (November 1997): 275-80.
54. Interview with Professor Jia Qingguo, Department of International Politics, Beijing University, Beijing, March 8, 1995.
55. Chen Lemin, "International Cooperation and Sovereignty," Shijie zhishi (World Affairs), 1992, no. 5:14-15.
56. Feng Tejun and Song Xinning et al., eds., Guoji zhengzhi gailun (Introduction to international politics) (Beijing: The People's University of China Press, 1992), 36-37.
57. Liu Jinji, Liang Shoude, Yang Huaisheng, et al., eds., Guoji zhengzhi dacidian (A dictionary of international politics) (Beijing: Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Press, 1994), 32.
58. These improvements were made, with the concurrence of the Indian government, in the 1950s.
59. See, for example, James C. Hsiung, ed., Beyond China's Independent Foreign Policy (New York: Praeger, 1985).
60. Gerald Chan, "Chinese Perspectives on Peace and Development," Peace Review 10, no. 1 (1998): 35-41.
61. Feng Tejun et al., eds., Dangdai shijie zhengzhi jingji yu guoji guanxi (Contemporary world politics, economics, and international relations), 2nd edition (Beijing: The People's University of China Press, 1994), 7.
62. Ibid.
63. Ibid., 9.
64. Ibid., 11.
65. These are my terminologies, as are "musketeers" and the "Fudan school" in the following paragraph.
66. Feng Shaolei, Pan Zhiwai, Fan Jun, and Lu Lin, Guoji guanxi xinlun (New discussions on international relations) (Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press, 1994), preface, 1.
67. This section is clearly out of line with the flow of arguments in the main text. The analysis in the section scarcely touches on China, and concerns the past rather than the contemporary relevance of Marxism to IR. A plausible explanation for the inclusion of this rather odd section is that the authors had to satisfy the conditions of its funding agency in Shanghai for supporting Marxist publications and that it was possibly the result of a screening process conducted by the government to ensure "political correctness."
68. According to Professor Song Xinning of the People's University of China in Beijing, starting from September 1998, the name of the course would be changed to "World politics and economics," dropping the reference to IR. The contents would remain the same. Interview with Professor Song at his office on June 4, 1998.
69. Bai Xi, Dangdai guoji guanxixue daolun (Introduction to contemporary international relations) (Beijing: University of Political Science and Law Press, 1991), 293.
70. Ibid., 292.
71. Ibid. Bai's arguments can best be viewed against the context of the nature of social sciences and the differences between social sciences and physical sciences. In comparison, physical sciences can be rendered more exact in terms of measurability of the variables involved by some commonly accepted standards, whereas social science variables are much more difficult to measure because they involve human values and judgments which can be highly controversial. Hence social sciences in some countries, especially in China, are politically very sensitive. Despite these relative differences between the two branches of sciences, there exist some commonalities. What makes them both sciences is that they share the qualities of being systematic and logical, and both make use of the theoretical properties of description, explanation, predication, and prescription.
72. Interviews at Beijing University in early 1995. The Department of International Politics at Beijing University runs a master's program in English for foreign students. Most of them come from Africa and other developing countries to study on Chinese government scholarships. Their courses are run separately from courses offered to local Chinese students and a few South Korean students.
73. Wang Jisi, "International Relations Theory and the Study of Chinese Foreign Policy," in Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice, ed. Thomas W. Robinson and David Shambaugh (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 495.
74. Some young Chinese scholars have recently turned their attention to publishing policy-oriented papers based on their perception of China's conditions. See for example, Wang Shaoguang and Hu Angang, Zhongguo guojia nengli baogao (A report on China's national capability) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1994).
75. Zhao Baoxu, "Preface" to Guoqing zhishi shouce (Handbook of the knowledge of national conditions), ed. Beijing University's Research Center for Contemporary China (Beijing: Science and Technology Press, 1990), 1-2.
76. Huan Xiang, "Preface" to James Dougherty and Robert Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, trans. Shao Wenguang (Beijing: World Affairs Press, 1987), 1-2.
77. He Fang, "Establish China's International Relations Theory," Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi, 1992, no. 1:36.
78. Ibid., 37.
79. Li Shisheng, "Basic Thinking on the Establishment of a System of International Relations Theory," in Guoji zhengzhi lunji (Collected essays on international politics), ed. Liang Shoude et al. (Beijing: Beijing Press, 1992), 101.
80. Xiao Duan (Wang's pen name) in reviewing Yuan Ming's Kua shiji de tiaozhan, in Shijie jingji yu zhengzhi, 1995, no. 1:92.
81. Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, an in-house academic journal published by the department, 1994, no. 3:68-69; 1995, no. 3:110-11; 1996, no. 3:80-81; and 1997, no. 3:119-20.
82. Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, an in-house academic journal published by the department, 1994, no. 3:68-69; 1995, no. 3:110-11; 1996, no. 3:80-81; and 1997, no. 3:119-20.
83. Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, an in-house academic journal published by the department, 1994, no. 3:68-69; 1995, no. 3:110-11; 1996, no. 3:80-81; and 1997, no. 3:119-20.
84. Guoji zhengzhi yanjiu, an in-house academic journal published by the department, 1994, no. 3:68-69; 1995, no. 3:110-11; 1996, no. 3:80-81; and 1997, no. 3:119-20.
85. Waijiao xueyuan xuebao, 1997, no. 3:86-87.
86. Ibid., 1996, no. 3:87.
87. Ibid., 1995, no. 1:88-89.
88. Ibid., 1997, no. 3:92-96.
89. Ibid., 1995, no. 1:94-96; 1995, no. 3:91-93; and 1997, no. 3:86-92.
90. Ibid., 1995, no. 1:94-96; 1995, no. 3:91-93; and 1997, no. 3:86-92.
91. Ibid., 1995, no. 1:94-96; 1995, no. 3:91-93; and 1997, no. 3:86-92.
92. A phrase borrowed from June T. Dreyer's China's Political System: Modernization and Tradition (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1993), 23-24, as one of the seven schools of analysis of Chinese politics which stresses the importance of the influence of culture and tradition on Chinese politics. The phrase also means that "China is unique, and therefore few readily available Western theories can be applied directly to its study." See Hua Shiping's book review of Liu Xiuwu, Western Perspectives on Chinese Higher Education: A Model for Cross-Cultural Inquiry (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), in Perspectives on Political Science 26, no. 4 (Fall 1997): 233.
93. A phrase borrowed from June T. Dreyer's China's Political System: Modernization and Tradition (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1993), 23-24, as one of the seven schools of analysis of Chinese politics which stresses the importance of the influence of culture and tradition on Chinese politics. The phrase also means that "China is unique, and therefore few readily available Western theories can be applied directly to its study." See Hua Shiping's book review of Liu Xiuwu, Western Perspectives on Chinese Higher Education: A Model for Cross-Cultural Inquiry (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), in Perspectives on Political Science 26, no. 4 (Fall 1997): 233.
94. A phrase borrowed from June T. Dreyer's China's Political System: Modernization and Tradition (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1993), 23-24, as one of the seven schools of analysis of Chinese politics which stresses the importance of the influence of culture and tradition on Chinese politics. The phrase also means that "China is unique, and therefore few readily available Western theories can be applied directly to its study." See Hua Shiping's book review of Liu Xiuwu, Western Perspectives on Chinese Higher Education: A Model for Cross-Cultural Inquiry (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), in Perspectives on Political Science 26, no. 4 (Fall 1997): 233.
95. Samuel Alexander, Space, Time and Deity (London: Macmillan, 1920), quoted in Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977), preface.
96. Samuel Alexander, Space, Time and Deity (London: Macmillan, 1920), quoted in Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977), preface.