The judiciary and delegative democracy in Argentina

Comparative Politics

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 423-442

  Larkins, Christopher ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0010514699     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422332     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. For a good review of the Argentine transition, see Alejandro M. Garro, "Nine Years Transition to Democracy in Argentina: Partial Failure or Qualified Success?," Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 31 (1993), 1-102.
2. This realization is the thrust of a whole new literature on democratization. See Jorge I. Domínguez and Abraham F. Lowenthal, eds., Constructing Democratic Governance: Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1990s (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Guillermo O'Donnell, "Illusions about Consolidation," Journal of Democracy, 9 (April 1996), 34-52; and Philippe C. Schmitter, "Transitology: The Science or Art of Democratization?," in Joseph S. Tulchin and Bernice Romero, eds., The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995), pp. 11-41.
3. This realization is the thrust of a whole new literature on democratization. See Jorge I. Domínguez and Abraham F. Lowenthal, eds., Constructing Democratic Governance: Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1990s (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Guillermo O'Donnell, "Illusions about Consolidation," Journal of Democracy, 9 (April 1996), 34-52; and Philippe C. Schmitter, "Transitology: The Science or Art of Democratization?," in Joseph S. Tulchin and Bernice Romero, eds., The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995), pp. 11-41.
4. This realization is the thrust of a whole new literature on democratization. See Jorge I. Domínguez and Abraham F. Lowenthal, eds., Constructing Democratic Governance: Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1990s (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Guillermo O'Donnell, "Illusions about Consolidation," Journal of Democracy, 9 (April 1996), 34-52; and Philippe C. Schmitter, "Transitology: The Science or Art of Democratization?," in Joseph S. Tulchin and Bernice Romero, eds., The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995), pp. 11-41.
5. Guillermo O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy?" (Notre Dame: University of Nortre Dame, Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies, Working Paper #172, March 1992).
6. For a historical review of Argentine presidentialism, see Liliana de Riz and Catalina Smulovitz, "Instituciones y dinámica política: El presidencialismo argentino,' in Dieter Nohlen and Liliana de Riz, eds., Reforma institucional y cambio político (Buenos Aires: CEDES, 1991), pp. 121-76.
7. Carlos Santiago Nino, "The Debate over Judicial Reform in Latin America," Fordham International Law Journal, 16 (1992-1993), 643.
8. See Christopher M. Larkins, "Judicial Independence and Democratization: A Theoretical and Conceptual Analysis,' American Journal of Comparative Law, 44 (Fall 1996), 605-26.
9. Ibid.
10. See Martin Feinrider, "Judicial Review and the Protection of Human Rights under Military Governments in Brazil and Argentina," Suffolk Transnational Law Journal, 5 (Winter 1981), 176-201; Alejandro M. Garro, "The Role of the Argentine Judiciary in Controlling Governmental Action under a State of Siege," Human Rights Law Journal, 4 (Summer 1983), 311-37; C. Neal Tate, "Courts and Crisis Regimes: A Theory Sketch with Asian Case Studies," Political Research Quarterly, 46 (June 1993), 311-38; and C. Neal Tate and Stacia Haynie, "Authoritarianism and the Function of Courts: A Time Series Analysis of the Philippine Supreme Court, 1961-1987," Law and Society Review, 27 (1993), 707-39.
11. See Martin Feinrider, "Judicial Review and the Protection of Human Rights under Military Governments in Brazil and Argentina," Suffolk Transnational Law Journal, 5 (Winter 1981), 176-201; Alejandro M. Garro, "The Role of the Argentine Judiciary in Controlling Governmental Action under a State of Siege," Human Rights Law Journal, 4 (Summer 1983), 311-37; C. Neal Tate, "Courts and Crisis Regimes: A Theory Sketch with Asian Case Studies," Political Research Quarterly, 46 (June 1993), 311-38; and C. Neal Tate and Stacia Haynie, "Authoritarianism and the Function of Courts: A Time Series Analysis of the Philippine Supreme Court, 1961-1987," Law and Society Review, 27 (1993), 707-39.
12. See Martin Feinrider, "Judicial Review and the Protection of Human Rights under Military Governments in Brazil and Argentina," Suffolk Transnational Law Journal, 5 (Winter 1981), 176-201; Alejandro M. Garro, "The Role of the Argentine Judiciary in Controlling Governmental Action under a State of Siege," Human Rights Law Journal, 4 (Summer 1983), 311-37; C. Neal Tate, "Courts and Crisis Regimes: A Theory Sketch with Asian Case Studies," Political Research Quarterly, 46 (June 1993), 311-38; and C. Neal Tate and Stacia Haynie, "Authoritarianism and the Function of Courts: A Time Series Analysis of the Philippine Supreme Court, 1961-1987," Law and Society Review, 27 (1993), 707-39.
13. See Martin Feinrider, "Judicial Review and the Protection of Human Rights under Military Governments in Brazil and Argentina," Suffolk Transnational Law Journal, 5 (Winter 1981), 176-201; Alejandro M. Garro, "The Role of the Argentine Judiciary in Controlling Governmental Action under a State of Siege," Human Rights Law Journal, 4 (Summer 1983), 311-37; C. Neal Tate, "Courts and Crisis Regimes: A Theory Sketch with Asian Case Studies," Political Research Quarterly, 46 (June 1993), 311-38; and C. Neal Tate and Stacia Haynie, "Authoritarianism and the Function of Courts: A Time Series Analysis of the Philippine Supreme Court, 1961-1987," Law and Society Review, 27 (1993), 707-39.
14. O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," p. 6.
15. Ibid., pp. 6-7.
16. Ibid., pp. 1-3. See also Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
17. Ibid., pp. 1-3. See also Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
18. See particularly O'Donnell, "Illusions about Consolidation," pp. 42-46.
19. O'Donnell, "Delegative Democracy," p. 7.
20. Ibid., pp. 12-16.
21. See Inter-American Development Bank, "Annual Report 1995."
22. See Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 106-10.
23. See the Argentine daily Clarín, July 1, 1996. Since 1853 the mayor (Intendente) of Buenos Aires had been appointed by the president. The city was granted a greater degree of self-rule (including the right to elect the Intendente) in the constitution of 1994.
24. Based on author's observations in Buenos Aires, Argentina, June 1996. One poster from winning Radical party candidate Fernando de la Rúa showed a doctored photograph of President Menem wearing a glove with razor-tipped fingers, mimicking the character "Freddy Krueger" in the popular horror movie series Nightmare on Elm Street. The caption read "The Nightmare ends June 30."
25. See Clarín Digital, World Wide Web, July 24, 1996. His membership in the group was the lead story of the June issue of the Argentine critical magazine, Noticias. It included a cover photo of the young Barra raising his hand in a Nazi salute, with the caption, "Is justice safe in his hands?"
26. Mateo Goretti and Delia Ferreira Rubio, "La emergencia y la relación entre el Ejecutivo y el Congreso durante la administration del Presidente Menem: Uso y abuso de los decretos de necesidad y urgencia," presented to the Annual Congress of the International Political Science Association, Paris, France, May 26-28, 1993. Cf. Raúl Baglini and Andrés D'Ambrosio, Juicio a la Corte (Buenos Aires: 1993), pp. 112-25.
27. Mateo Goretti and Delia Ferreira Rubio, "La emergencia y la relación entre el Ejecutivo y el Congreso durante la administration del Presidente Menem: Uso y abuso de los decretos de necesidad y urgencia," presented to the Annual Congress of the International Political Science Association, Paris, France, May 26-28, 1993. Cf. Raúl Baglini and Andrés D'Ambrosio, Juicio a la Corte (Buenos Aires: 1993), pp. 112-25.
28. Goretti and Rubio, "La emergencia y la relación entre el Ejecutivo y el Congreso"; and Baglini and D'Ambrosio, p. 114.
29. Ibid., p. 116.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., p. 115.
32. Interview with Dra. Liliana de Riz, June 25, 1996, in Buenos Aires.
33. Liliana de Riz, "Argentina: Democracy in Turmoil," in Jorge I. Domínguez and Abraham F. Lowenthal, eds., Constructing Democratic Governance: South America in the 1990s (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 147-64; and Nino, p. 638.
34. De Riz, "Argentina: Democracy in Turmoil," pp. 151-59. See also Consejo para la Consolidación de la Democracia, Reforma Constitucional: Segundo Dictamen (Buenos Aires: CCD, 1987).
35. De Riz, "Argentina: Democracy in Turmoil," pp. 151-59. See also Consejo para la Consolidación de la Democracia, Reforma Constitucional: Segundo Dictamen (Buenos Aires: CCD, 1987).
36. Impression based on interviews conducted by the author June 2-July 1, 1996, in Buenos Aires.
37. Interview with de Riz. Meanwhile, President Menem has not refrained from issuing more decrees. See Ministry of Justice, Republic of Argentina, Sistema Argentina de Informática Jurídica, on the World Wide Web, http://www.saij.jus.gov.ar.
38. Interview with Dr. Germán Bidart Campos, June 20, 1996, in Buenos Aires; interview with de Riz.
39. Interview with Bidart Campos and with Dr. Héctor Tanzi, June 12, 1996, in Buenos Aires. The president originally offered the chief justice position to the Peronist candidate he defeated for president in 1983, but the appointment was declined. Alfonsín named one Socialist (Carlos Fayt), one Peronist (Enrique Petracchi), one independent (Genaro Carrió), and two people affiliated with a rival faction of his own Radical party (Arturo Caballero and Augusto Belluscio) to the court. See Horacio Verbitsky, Hacer la Corte: La construcción de un poder absoluto sin justicia ni control (Buenos Aires: Planeta, 1993), p. 22. Dr. Tanzi has also compiled a biography of all supreme court justices during the twentieth century.
40. For Argentine human rights trials, see Carlos Santiago Nino, "The Duty to Punish Past Abuses of Human Rights Put into Context: The Case of Argentina," The Yale Law Journal, 100 (June 1991), 2619-40; Alejandro M. Garro and Henry Dahl, "Legal Accountability for Human Rights Violations in Argentina: One Step Forward and Two Steps Back," Human Rights Law Journal, 8 (1987), 283-344; Jaime Malamud-Goti, "Punishing Human Rights Abuses in Fledgling Democracies: The Case of Argentina," in Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ed., Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 160-70; and David Pion-Berlin, "To Prosecute or to Pardon? Human Rights Decisions in the Latin American Southern Cone," Human Rights Quarterly, 16 (1994), 105-30.
41. For Argentine human rights trials, see Carlos Santiago Nino, "The Duty to Punish Past Abuses of Human Rights Put into Context: The Case of Argentina," The Yale Law Journal, 100 (June 1991), 2619-40; Alejandro M. Garro and Henry Dahl, "Legal Accountability for Human Rights Violations in Argentina: One Step Forward and Two Steps Back," Human Rights Law Journal, 8 (1987), 283-344; Jaime Malamud-Goti, "Punishing Human Rights Abuses in Fledgling Democracies: The Case of Argentina," in Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ed., Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 160-70; and David Pion-Berlin, "To Prosecute or to Pardon? Human Rights Decisions in the Latin American Southern Cone," Human Rights Quarterly, 16 (1994), 105-30.
42. For Argentine human rights trials, see Carlos Santiago Nino, "The Duty to Punish Past Abuses of Human Rights Put into Context: The Case of Argentina," The Yale Law Journal, 100 (June 1991), 2619-40; Alejandro M. Garro and Henry Dahl, "Legal Accountability for Human Rights Violations in Argentina: One Step Forward and Two Steps Back," Human Rights Law Journal, 8 (1987), 283-344; Jaime Malamud-Goti, "Punishing Human Rights Abuses in Fledgling Democracies: The Case of Argentina," in Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ed., Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 160-70; and David Pion-Berlin, "To Prosecute or to Pardon? Human Rights Decisions in the Latin American Southern Cone," Human Rights Quarterly, 16 (1994), 105-30.
43. For Argentine human rights trials, see Carlos Santiago Nino, "The Duty to Punish Past Abuses of Human Rights Put into Context: The Case of Argentina," The Yale Law Journal, 100 (June 1991), 2619-40; Alejandro M. Garro and Henry Dahl, "Legal Accountability for Human Rights Violations in Argentina: One Step Forward and Two Steps Back," Human Rights Law Journal, 8 (1987), 283-344; Jaime Malamud-Goti, "Punishing Human Rights Abuses in Fledgling Democracies: The Case of Argentina," in Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ed., Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 160-70; and David Pion-Berlin, "To Prosecute or to Pardon? Human Rights Decisions in the Latin American Southern Cone," Human Rights Quarterly, 16 (1994), 105-30.
44. See Garro and Dahl, pp. 329-43.
45. Interview with Dr. Jorge Bacqué (Supreme Court Justice, 1985-1989), July 1, 1996, in Buenos Aires.
46. Interview with Bacqué.
47. Víctor Rolón Zappa v. Estado Nacional, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, September 30, 1986. See also German Bidart Campos, "Comentario," El Derecho, pp. 120, 562. Professor Jonathan Miller disputes the importance of this decision, noting that the supreme court failed to act on subsequent challenges to Alfonsín's social security policy (correspondence with the author). Nonetheless, the decision in Rolón Zappa was a significant blow to the government during an economic dowturn.
48. Víctor Rolón Zappa v. Estado Nacional, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, September 30, 1986. See also German Bidart Campos, "Comentario," El Derecho, pp. 120, 562. Professor Jonathan Miller disputes the importance of this decision, noting that the supreme court failed to act on subsequent challenges to Alfonsín's social security policy (correspondence with the author). Nonetheless, the decision in Rolón Zappa was a significant blow to the government during an economic dowturn.
49. See Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 53-180; Verbitsky, pp. 33-77; also, César Domingo Yáñez, "La Nueva Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación," La Ley (1990-C), 123.
50. See Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 53-180; Verbitsky, pp. 33-77; also, César Domingo Yáñez, "La Nueva Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación," La Ley (1990-C), 123.
51. See Verbitsky, pp. 33-38. Verbitsky reports that when Justice Carlos Fayt was offered the position of ambassador to Colombia, he responded by sending the executive a copy of his book, Derecho y Etica (Law and Ethics), with the inscription, "Be aware that I wrote this."
52. Ibid.
53. Dr. Jorge Bacqué, on the court from 1985 to 1990, claims that as a presidential candidate Menem reportedly visited the members of the supreme court and promised them: "Rest assured that I will not even touch the judicial branch." Interview with Bacqué. Menem supposedly repeated the assurance shortly after his election. Verbitsky, p. 36.
54. Mariano Grondona, "La Justicia y los políticos," in Francisco Diez, ed., La Justicia en Crisis (Buenos Aires: Poder Ciudadano, 1994), p. 136.
55. See Verbitsky, pp. 30-50. Interestingly, the president made referred to Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposed expansion of the U.S. supreme court to justify his own attempt.
56. Grondona, p. 136. The president was referring to the recomposition of the supreme court which had occurred eight times since 1946, the last time in 1983 when the badly discredited supreme court named by the former military regime resigned en masse to make way for a "democratic" court.
57. Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 41-76.
58. Ibid., p. 47.
59. See Verbitsky, pp. 52-68; Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 77-103.
60. Verbitsky, p. 54.
61. Ibid., p. 56.
62. Verbitsky, pp. 52-68.
63. Rodolfo Barra, "Democracia y adminstración pública," in Rodolfo Barra et al., eds., En torno a la democracia (Buenos Aires: Belgrano, 1991), p. 11.
64. See the daily newspaper Página/12, Apr. 27, 1993; also Baglini and D'Ambrosio, p. 102.
65. Interview with Dr. Bidart Campos.
66. Verbitsky, p. 135.
67. Interview with Dr. Rosendo Fraga, June 25, 1996, in Buenos Aires.
68. Instituto Gallup de la Argentina, "Estudio de opinión acerca de la justicia en Argentina," March 1994, conducted for Fundación Poder Ciudadano, Buenos Aires.
69. Data presented by Graciela Römer at the debate, "La Justicia en Crisis," at the University of Buenos Aires Law School, June 4, 1996 (attended by the author).
70. Ibid.
71. Interview with Bacqué.
72. Juan Ramón Rodríguez v. Campañia Embotelladora Argentina, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, April 15, 1993. See Verbitsky, pp. 183-85.
73. Ricardo Molinas v. Poder Ejecutivo, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, September 24, 1991.
74. Banco Patagónico, S.A. v. Metalúrgica Skay, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, September 16, 1993.
75. See Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 187-201.
76. Ibid., pp. 181-204.
77. Ibid., pp. 186-87. It was also widely reported in the news media, for example, La Nación, Oct. 1, 1993, p. 20, Oct. 3, 1993, p. 18, and Página/12, Sept. 30, 1993, p. 13. No evidence that Barra disavowed the statement could be found.
78. Ibid., pp. 186-87. It was also widely reported in the news media, for example, La Nación, Oct. 1, 1993, p. 20, Oct. 3, 1993, p. 18, and Página/12, Sept. 30, 1993, p. 13. No evidence that Barra disavowed the statement could be found.
79. Ibid., pp. 186-87. It was also widely reported in the news media, for example, La Nación, Oct. 1, 1993, p. 20, Oct. 3, 1993, p. 18, and Página/12, Sept. 30, 1993, p. 13. No evidence that Barra disavowed the statement could be found.
80. For the supreme court's review of the pardons, see Verbitsky, pp. 142-49.
81. Ibid.
82. Interviews with Bidart Campos and de Riz.
83. See León Carlos Arslanián, "La Justicia y los políticos," in Diez, ed., La Justicia en Crisis, p. 170;
84. Verbitsky, pp. 391-95.
85. See Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 77-102.
86. Interview with Bidart Campos.
87. Interviews with Bacqué and Bidart Campos. A Menem appointee, Ricardo Levene, has sinced resigned and was replaced by Justice Bossert. Bossert is considered a political independent, thus placing Menem's "automatic majority" somewhat in doubt. Correspondence with Eduardo Barbarosch. However, with the court's decisions extending the institutional power of the presidency, Menem may have already gotten all he needed. Continued outright dominance may no longer be necessary.
88. Interview with Dr. Raúl Zaffaroni, June 19, 1996, in Buenos Aires. See also Néstor Baragli, "Consejo de la Magistratura: Guía de debate," Fundación Poder Ciudadano (February 1996); Clarín, June 3-6, 1996;
89. Interview with Dr. Raúl Zaffaroni, June 19, 1996, in Buenos Aires. See also Néstor Baragli, "Consejo de la Magistratura: Guía de debate," Fundación Poder Ciudadano (February 1996); Clarín, June 3-6, 1996;
90. Interview with Dr. Raúl Zaffaroni, June 19, 1996, in Buenos Aires. See also Néstor Baragli, "Consejo de la Magistratura: Guía de debate," Fundación Poder Ciudadano (February 1996); Clarín, June 3-6, 1996;
91. La Nación, June 3, 1996.
92. Peralta v. Estado Nacional, December 27, 1990; Mercedes Aquino, October 14, 1992; Mario Carlos Gabrielli v, Nación Argentina, 1992; José Antonio Romero Feris v. Estado Nacional, September 8, 1992; Oscar Godoy v. Universidad Nacional de La Plata, December 27, 1990; FOETRA Sindicato Buenos Aires v. Ministerio de Trabajo y Seguridad Social de la Nación y otros, April 5, 1991.
93. Interviews with Bidart Campos and Bacqué.
94. Dromi, José R. s/ Avocación, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, September 6, 1990.
95. See Verbitsky, pp. 137-40; Clarín, July 12, 13, 1990.
96. See Verbitsky, pp. 137-40; Clarín, July 12, 13, 1990.
97. Dromi, José R. s/ Avocación.
98. Rolón Zappa v. Estado Nacional.
99. Ibid.
100. Ibid.
101. Verbitsky, p. 227.
102. Interview with de Riz.
103. Universidad de Buenos Aires v. Estado Nacional, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, June 19, 1991. Six justices, all Menem appointees, wrote the majority decision on the merits. Two other justices, Petracchi and Belluscio, rejected the university's appeal on principle, arguing that Decree 1111/89 had not yet ordered any particular regulations and the university therefore had no basis for a lawsuit. Only Justice Fayt disagreed both on the merits and on principle.
104. Ibid.
105. Ibid.
106. Peralta v. Estado Nacional. 87. Decreto de Necesidad y Urgencia 36/90, Presidente de la República, January 5, 1990.
107. Ibid.
108. Baglini and D'Ambrosio, pp. 114-15.
109. See Baglini and D'Ambrosio, p. 114.
110. For a contrary perspective, see N. Guillermo Molinelli, "Las relaciones Presidente-Congreso en Argentina, '83-'95," Post Data2 (November 1996), 59-90.
111. See Germán Bidart Campos, "El fallo de la Corte sobre el 'Plan Bonex' (El amparo; airoso; la propriedad: desprotegida; la constitución: entre paréntesis)," El Derecho, 141 (1991), 519.
112. Peralta v. Estado Nacional. 93.
113. Ibid.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid.
116. Verbitsky, p. 160. See also Bidart Campos, "El fallo de la Corte sobre el 'Plan Bonex'; and Roberto Saba, "Y...¿para qué está el Congreso?," No Hay Derecho, 5 (1992), 3.
117. Verbitsky, p. 160. See also Bidart Campos, "El fallo de la Corte sobre el 'Plan Bonex'; and Roberto Saba, "Y...¿para qué está el Congreso?," No Hay Derecho, 5 (1992), 3.
118. Verbitsky, p. 160. See also Bidart Campos, "El fallo de la Corte sobre el 'Plan Bonex'; and Roberto Saba, "Y...¿para qué está el Congreso?," No Hay Derecho, 5 (1992), 3.
119. Peralta v. Estado Nacional. 98.
120. Ibid.
121. See, for example, Verbitsky, pp. 15-32.
122. For Menem's views on political power, see Gabriela Cerruti, El Jefe: Vida y obra de Carlos Saúl Menem (Buenos Aires: Planeta, 1993).
123. See Garro, "The Role of the Argentine Judiciary."
124. See ibid.; Jorge Correa Sutil, "The Judiciary and the Political System in Chile: The Dilemmas of Judicial Independence during the Transition to Democracy," in Irwin P. Stotzky, ed., Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the Judiciary (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 90-101; and Feinrider.
125. See ibid.; Jorge Correa Sutil, "The Judiciary and the Political System in Chile: The Dilemmas of Judicial Independence during the Transition to Democracy," in Irwin P. Stotzky, ed., Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the Judiciary (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 90-101; and Feinrider.
126. Interview with Bidart Campos.
127. José Toharia, "Judicial Independence in an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Contemporary Spain," Law and Society Review, 9 (Spring 1975), 475-96.
128. Tate, "Courts and Crisis Regimes," p. 318.