Negative ' international peace and domestic conflicts, West Africa, 1957-96

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 367-385

  Kacowicz, Arie M ^a  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0010327096     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X97002474     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. The criterion for countries to be included in the region known as West Africa is directly related to their membership in Ecowas ; namely : Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.
2. Baffour Agyeman-Duah, 'Military Coups, Regime Change, and Interstate Conflicts in West Africa', in Armed Forces and Society (New Brunswick, NJ), 16, Summer 1990, pp. 547-70.
3. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'Why Africa's Weak States Persist: the empirical and the juridical in statehood', in World Politics (Princeton), 35, 1, October 1982, pp. 1-24; Jeffrey Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', in International Organization (Cambridge, MA), 43, Autumn 1989, pp. 673-92, and 'War and the State in Africa', in International Security (Cambridge, MA), 14, Spring 1990, pp. 117-19.
4. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'Why Africa's Weak States Persist: the empirical and the juridical in statehood', in World Politics (Princeton), 35, 1, October 1982, pp. 1-24; Jeffrey Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', in International Organization (Cambridge, MA), 43, Autumn 1989, pp. 673-92, and 'War and the State in Africa', in International Security (Cambridge, MA), 14, Spring 1990, pp. 117-19.
5. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'Why Africa's Weak States Persist: the empirical and the juridical in statehood', in World Politics (Princeton), 35, 1, October 1982, pp. 1-24; Jeffrey Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', in International Organization (Cambridge, MA), 43, Autumn 1989, pp. 673-92, and 'War and the State in Africa', in International Security (Cambridge, MA), 14, Spring 1990, pp. 117-19.
6. Robert H.Jackson, 'Juridical Statehood in Sub-Saharan Africa', in Journal of International Affairs (New York), 46, Summer 1992, pp. 1-16.
7. Adda B. Bozeman, Conflict in Africa: concepts and realities (Princeton, 1976), p. 45, and Baffour Agyeman-Duah and Olatunde J. B. Ojo, 'Interstate Conflicts in West Africa: the reference group theory perspective', in Comparative Political Studies (Beverly Hills, CA), 24, October 1991, pp. 306-7.
8. Adda B. Bozeman, Conflict in Africa: concepts and realities (Princeton, 1976), p. 45, and Baffour Agyeman-Duah and Olatunde J. B. Ojo, 'Interstate Conflicts in West Africa: the reference group theory perspective', in Comparative Political Studies (Beverly Hills, CA), 24, October 1991, pp. 306-7.
9. On the Ecomog operation and the Liberian civil war, see Christopher Clapham, 'Liberia', in Timothy M. Shaw and Julius E. Okolo (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in Ecowas (London, 1994), pp. 66-85; Comfort Ero, 'Subregional Peacekeeping and Conflict Management: the Ecowas intervention in Liberia', Second Pan-European Conference in International Relations, Paris, 13-16 September 1995; Ademola Adeleke, 'The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa: the Ecowas operation in Liberia', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 33, 4, December 1995, pp. 569-93; and Robert A. Mortimer, 'Ecomog, Liberia, and Regional Security in West Africa', in Edmond J. Keller and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in the New International Order : rethinking state sovereignty and regional security (Boulder and London, 1996), pp. 149-64.
10. On the Ecomog operation and the Liberian civil war, see Christopher Clapham, 'Liberia', in Timothy M. Shaw and Julius E. Okolo (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in Ecowas (London, 1994), pp. 66-85; Comfort Ero, 'Subregional Peacekeeping and Conflict Management: the Ecowas intervention in Liberia', Second Pan-European Conference in International Relations, Paris, 13-16 September 1995; Ademola Adeleke, 'The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa: the Ecowas operation in Liberia', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 33, 4, December 1995, pp. 569-93; and Robert A. Mortimer, 'Ecomog, Liberia, and Regional Security in West Africa', in Edmond J. Keller and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in the New International Order : rethinking state sovereignty and regional security (Boulder and London, 1996), pp. 149-64.
11. On the Ecomog operation and the Liberian civil war, see Christopher Clapham, 'Liberia', in Timothy M. Shaw and Julius E. Okolo (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in Ecowas (London, 1994), pp. 66-85; Comfort Ero, 'Subregional Peacekeeping and Conflict Management: the Ecowas intervention in Liberia', Second Pan-European Conference in International Relations, Paris, 13-16 September 1995; Ademola Adeleke, 'The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa: the Ecowas operation in Liberia', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 33, 4, December 1995, pp. 569-93; and Robert A. Mortimer, 'Ecomog, Liberia, and Regional Security in West Africa', in Edmond J. Keller and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in the New International Order : rethinking state sovereignty and regional security (Boulder and London, 1996), pp. 149-64.
12. On the Ecomog operation and the Liberian civil war, see Christopher Clapham, 'Liberia', in Timothy M. Shaw and Julius E. Okolo (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in Ecowas (London, 1994), pp. 66-85; Comfort Ero, 'Subregional Peacekeeping and Conflict Management: the Ecowas intervention in Liberia', Second Pan-European Conference in International Relations, Paris, 13-16 September 1995; Ademola Adeleke, 'The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa: the Ecowas operation in Liberia', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 33, 4, December 1995, pp. 569-93; and Robert A. Mortimer, 'Ecomog, Liberia, and Regional Security in West Africa', in Edmond J. Keller and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in the New International Order : rethinking state sovereignty and regional security (Boulder and London, 1996), pp. 149-64.
13. See Colin Legum, 'The Coming of Africa's Second Independence', in The Washington Quarterly, 13, Winter 1990, pp. 130-4; Claude Ake, 'Rethinking African Democracy', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 70-82; Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge, 1993); and John W. Harbeson, 'Africa in World Politics: amid renewal, deepening crisis', in Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in World Politics: post-cold war challenges (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford, 1995), pp. 3-20.
14. See Colin Legum, 'The Coming of Africa's Second Independence', in The Washington Quarterly, 13, Winter 1990, pp. 130-4; Claude Ake, 'Rethinking African Democracy', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 70-82; Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge, 1993); and John W. Harbeson, 'Africa in World Politics: amid renewal, deepening crisis', in Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in World Politics: post-cold war challenges (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford, 1995), pp. 3-20.
15. See Colin Legum, 'The Coming of Africa's Second Independence', in The Washington Quarterly, 13, Winter 1990, pp. 130-4; Claude Ake, 'Rethinking African Democracy', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 70-82; Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge, 1993); and John W. Harbeson, 'Africa in World Politics: amid renewal, deepening crisis', in Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in World Politics: post-cold war challenges (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford, 1995), pp. 3-20.
16. See Colin Legum, 'The Coming of Africa's Second Independence', in The Washington Quarterly, 13, Winter 1990, pp. 130-4; Claude Ake, 'Rethinking African Democracy', in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 70-82; Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery (Cambridge, 1993); and John W. Harbeson, 'Africa in World Politics: amid renewal, deepening crisis', in Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.), Africa in World Politics: post-cold war challenges (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford, 1995), pp. 3-20.
17. See I. William Zartman, 'Africa and the West: the French connection', in Bruce E. Arlinghaus (ed.), African Security Issues (Boulder, CO, 1984), pp. 39-58; Jon Kraus, 'The Political Economy of African Foreign Policies: marginality and dependency, realism and choice', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. pp. 245-93; and Guy Martin, 'Francophone Africa in the Context of Franco-American Relations', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. pp. 163-88.
18. See I. William Zartman, 'Africa and the West: the French connection', in Bruce E. Arlinghaus (ed.), African Security Issues (Boulder, CO, 1984), pp. 39-58; Jon Kraus, 'The Political Economy of African Foreign Policies: marginality and dependency, realism and choice', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. pp. 245-93; and Guy Martin, 'Francophone Africa in the Context of Franco-American Relations', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. pp. 163-88.
19. See I. William Zartman, 'Africa and the West: the French connection', in Bruce E. Arlinghaus (ed.), African Security Issues (Boulder, CO, 1984), pp. 39-58; Jon Kraus, 'The Political Economy of African Foreign Policies: marginality and dependency, realism and choice', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. pp. 245-93; and Guy Martin, 'Francophone Africa in the Context of Franco-American Relations', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. pp. 163-88.
20. See Anthony V. Williams, 'Nigeria in West Africa', in David Myers (ed.), Regional Hegemons (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 269-303, and Raymond W. Copson, Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace (Armonk, NY, and London, 1994), p. 108.
21. See Anthony V. Williams, 'Nigeria in West Africa', in David Myers (ed.), Regional Hegemons (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 269-303, and Raymond W. Copson, Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace (Armonk, NY, and London, 1994), p. 108.
22. Olusola Akinrinade, 'From Hostility to Accommodation: Nigeria's policy in West Africa, 1984-1990', in Nigerian Journal of International Relations (Lagos), 12, 1, 1990, pp. 112-47.
23. See Julius E. Okolo and Stephen Wright, 'Nigeria', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. pp. 125-6.
24. See I. William Zartman, International Relations in the New Africa (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), and 'Alliances and Regional Unity in West Africa', in Luis Cantori and Steven Spiegel (eds.), The International Politics of Regions (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), pp. 116-31.
25. See I. William Zartman, International Relations in the New Africa (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966), and 'Alliances and Regional Unity in West Africa', in Luis Cantori and Steven Spiegel (eds.), The International Politics of Regions (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), pp. 116-31.
26. See B. Olatunji Oloruntimehin, 'Nigeria and the Francophone World', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs (Lagos), 14, 2, 1988, p. 425, and Clement Emenike Adibe, 'Ecowas in Comparative Perspective', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. pp. 204-5.
27. See B. Olatunji Oloruntimehin, 'Nigeria and the Francophone World', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs (Lagos), 14, 2, 1988, p. 425, and Clement Emenike Adibe, 'Ecowas in Comparative Perspective', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. pp. 204-5.
28. See Zartman, op. cit. pp. 48-54, and Kraus, loc. cit. pp. 263-6.
29. See Zartman, op. cit. pp. 48-54, and Kraus, loc. cit. pp. 263-6.
30. See I. William Zartman, 'Characteristics of Developing Foreign Policies', in William A. Lewis (ed.), French Speaking Africa: the search for identity (New York, 1965), p. 189; Ravi L. Kapil, On the Conflict Potential of Inherited Boundaries in Africa', in World Politics, 18, July 1996, p. 670; Robert O. Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa: a review', in International Organization, 24, Spring 1970, pp. 356-7; Henry Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', in International Security, 5, Fall 1980, p. 171 ; Robert H. Jackson, 'The Security Dilemma in Africa', in Brian L. Job (ed.), The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 88-90; and Stephen Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', in Roy C. Macridis (ed.), Foreign Policy in World Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992), p. 359.
31. See I. William Zartman, 'Characteristics of Developing Foreign Policies', in William A. Lewis (ed.), French Speaking Africa: the search for identity (New York, 1965), p. 189; Ravi L. Kapil, On the Conflict Potential of Inherited Boundaries in Africa', in World Politics, 18, July 1996, p. 670; Robert O. Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa: a review', in International Organization, 24, Spring 1970, pp. 356-7; Henry Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', in International Security, 5, Fall 1980, p. 171 ; Robert H. Jackson, 'The Security Dilemma in Africa', in Brian L. Job (ed.), The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 88-90; and Stephen Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', in Roy C. Macridis (ed.), Foreign Policy in World Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992), p. 359.
32. See I. William Zartman, 'Characteristics of Developing Foreign Policies', in William A. Lewis (ed.), French Speaking Africa: the search for identity (New York, 1965), p. 189; Ravi L. Kapil, On the Conflict Potential of Inherited Boundaries in Africa', in World Politics, 18, July 1996, p. 670; Robert O. Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa: a review', in International Organization, 24, Spring 1970, pp. 356-7; Henry Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', in International Security, 5, Fall 1980, p. 171 ; Robert H. Jackson, 'The Security Dilemma in Africa', in Brian L. Job (ed.), The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 88-90; and Stephen Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', in Roy C. Macridis (ed.), Foreign Policy in World Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992), p. 359.
33. See I. William Zartman, 'Characteristics of Developing Foreign Policies', in William A. Lewis (ed.), French Speaking Africa: the search for identity (New York, 1965), p. 189; Ravi L. Kapil, On the Conflict Potential of Inherited Boundaries in Africa', in World Politics, 18, July 1996, p. 670; Robert O. Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa: a review', in International Organization, 24, Spring 1970, pp. 356-7; Henry Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', in International Security, 5, Fall 1980, p. 171 ; Robert H. Jackson, 'The Security Dilemma in Africa', in Brian L. Job (ed.), The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 88-90; and Stephen Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', in Roy C. Macridis (ed.), Foreign Policy in World Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992), p. 359.
34. See I. William Zartman, 'Characteristics of Developing Foreign Policies', in William A. Lewis (ed.), French Speaking Africa: the search for identity (New York, 1965), p. 189; Ravi L. Kapil, On the Conflict Potential of Inherited Boundaries in Africa', in World Politics, 18, July 1996, p. 670; Robert O. Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa: a review', in International Organization, 24, Spring 1970, pp. 356-7; Henry Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', in International Security, 5, Fall 1980, p. 171 ; Robert H. Jackson, 'The Security Dilemma in Africa', in Brian L. Job (ed.), The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 88-90; and Stephen Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', in Roy C. Macridis (ed.), Foreign Policy in World Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992), p. 359.
35. See I. William Zartman, 'Characteristics of Developing Foreign Policies', in William A. Lewis (ed.), French Speaking Africa: the search for identity (New York, 1965), p. 189; Ravi L. Kapil, On the Conflict Potential of Inherited Boundaries in Africa', in World Politics, 18, July 1996, p. 670; Robert O. Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa: a review', in International Organization, 24, Spring 1970, pp. 356-7; Henry Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', in International Security, 5, Fall 1980, p. 171 ; Robert H. Jackson, 'The Security Dilemma in Africa', in Brian L. Job (ed.), The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO, 1991), pp. 88-90; and Stephen Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', in Roy C. Macridis (ed.), Foreign Policy in World Politics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992), p. 359.
36. See Robert O. Matthews, 'Domestic and Interstate Conflict in Africa', in International Journal (Toronto), 25, Summer 1970, p. 484; Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', pp. 180-6; and Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', p. 337.
37. See Robert O. Matthews, 'Domestic and Interstate Conflict in Africa', in International Journal (Toronto), 25, Summer 1970, p. 484; Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', pp. 180-6; and Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', p. 337.
38. See Robert O. Matthews, 'Domestic and Interstate Conflict in Africa', in International Journal (Toronto), 25, Summer 1970, p. 484; Bienen, 'African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors', pp. 180-6; and Wright, 'The Foreign Policy of Africa', p. 337.
39. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'Democracy in Tropical Africa: democracy versus autocracy in African politics', in Journal of International Affairs, 38, Winter 1985, pp. 293-6, and 'Popular Legitimacy in African Multi-Ethnic States', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 22, 2, June 1984, p. 183; and Larry Diamond, 'Introduction: roots of failure, seeds of hope', in Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries, Vol. 2, Africa (Boulder and London, 1988), p. 5.
40. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'Democracy in Tropical Africa: democracy versus autocracy in African politics', in Journal of International Affairs, 38, Winter 1985, pp. 293-6, and 'Popular Legitimacy in African Multi-Ethnic States', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 22, 2, June 1984, p. 183; and Larry Diamond, 'Introduction: roots of failure, seeds of hope', in Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries, Vol. 2, Africa (Boulder and London, 1988), p. 5.
41. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'Democracy in Tropical Africa: democracy versus autocracy in African politics', in Journal of International Affairs, 38, Winter 1985, pp. 293-6, and 'Popular Legitimacy in African Multi-Ethnic States', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 22, 2, June 1984, p. 183; and Larry Diamond, 'Introduction: roots of failure, seeds of hope', in Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries, Vol. 2, Africa (Boulder and London, 1988), p. 5.
42. See, for example, David L. Blaney and Mustapha K. Pasha, 'Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: ambiguities and historical possibilities', in Studies in Comparative International Development (New Brunswick, NJ), 28, Spring 1993, pp. 3-24; Geoffrey Hawthorn, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy: north, south, east, west (Stanford, 1993), pp. 330-54; Michael Bratton, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', in World Politics, 46, July 1994, pp. 453-89; and John W. Harbeson, Donald Rothchild, and Naomi Chazan (eds.), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Boulder and London, 1994).
43. See, for example, David L. Blaney and Mustapha K. Pasha, 'Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: ambiguities and historical possibilities', in Studies in Comparative International Development (New Brunswick, NJ), 28, Spring 1993, pp. 3-24; Geoffrey Hawthorn, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy: north, south, east, west (Stanford, 1993), pp. 330-54; Michael Bratton, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', in World Politics, 46, July 1994, pp. 453-89; and John W. Harbeson, Donald Rothchild, and Naomi Chazan (eds.), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Boulder and London, 1994).
44. See, for example, David L. Blaney and Mustapha K. Pasha, 'Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: ambiguities and historical possibilities', in Studies in Comparative International Development (New Brunswick, NJ), 28, Spring 1993, pp. 3-24; Geoffrey Hawthorn, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy: north, south, east, west (Stanford, 1993), pp. 330-54; Michael Bratton, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', in World Politics, 46, July 1994, pp. 453-89; and John W. Harbeson, Donald Rothchild, and Naomi Chazan (eds.), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Boulder and London, 1994).
45. See, for example, David L. Blaney and Mustapha K. Pasha, 'Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: ambiguities and historical possibilities', in Studies in Comparative International Development (New Brunswick, NJ), 28, Spring 1993, pp. 3-24; Geoffrey Hawthorn, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in David Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy: north, south, east, west (Stanford, 1993), pp. 330-54; Michael Bratton, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', in World Politics, 46, July 1994, pp. 453-89; and John W. Harbeson, Donald Rothchild, and Naomi Chazan (eds.), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Boulder and London, 1994).
46. John A. Wiseman, Democracy in Black Africa: survival and revival (New York, 1990), p. 13.
47. See Mazi Ray Ofoegbu, 'Functional Cooperation in West Africa', in Odu : a journal of West African studies (Ile-Ife), 6, October 1971, pp. 23-4, and Dennis Austin, 'Things Fall Apart', in Richard E. Bissell and Michael S. Radu (eds.), Africa in the Post-Decolonization Era (New Brunswick, NJ, 1984), p. 207.
48. See Mazi Ray Ofoegbu, 'Functional Cooperation in West Africa', in Odu : a journal of West African studies (Ile-Ife), 6, October 1971, pp. 23-4, and Dennis Austin, 'Things Fall Apart', in Richard E. Bissell and Michael S. Radu (eds.), Africa in the Post-Decolonization Era (New Brunswick, NJ, 1984), p. 207.
49. See Robert C. Good, 'Changing Patterns of African International Relations', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 58, September 1964, p. 636; Adebayo Adedeji, 'Prospects of Regional Economic Co-operation in West Africa', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8, 2, July 1970, p. 217; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism: the Economic Community of West African States', in International Organization, 39, Winter 1985, p. 124; and Mike Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa: reality or farce?', in Nigerian Forum (Lagos), 8, 4-6, 1988, p. 102; and Adibe, op. cit. pp. 199-201.
50. See Robert C. Good, 'Changing Patterns of African International Relations', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 58, September 1964, p. 636; Adebayo Adedeji, 'Prospects of Regional Economic Co-operation in West Africa', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8, 2, July 1970, p. 217; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism: the Economic Community of West African States', in International Organization, 39, Winter 1985, p. 124; and Mike Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa: reality or farce?', in Nigerian Forum (Lagos), 8, 4-6, 1988, p. 102; and Adibe, op. cit. pp. 199-201.
51. See Robert C. Good, 'Changing Patterns of African International Relations', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 58, September 1964, p. 636; Adebayo Adedeji, 'Prospects of Regional Economic Co-operation in West Africa', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8, 2, July 1970, p. 217; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism: the Economic Community of West African States', in International Organization, 39, Winter 1985, p. 124; and Mike Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa: reality or farce?', in Nigerian Forum (Lagos), 8, 4-6, 1988, p. 102; and Adibe, op. cit. pp. 199-201.
52. See Robert C. Good, 'Changing Patterns of African International Relations', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 58, September 1964, p. 636; Adebayo Adedeji, 'Prospects of Regional Economic Co-operation in West Africa', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8, 2, July 1970, p. 217; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism: the Economic Community of West African States', in International Organization, 39, Winter 1985, p. 124; and Mike Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa: reality or farce?', in Nigerian Forum (Lagos), 8, 4-6, 1988, p. 102; and Adibe, op. cit. pp. 199-201.
53. See Robert C. Good, 'Changing Patterns of African International Relations', in American Political Science Review (Washington, DC), 58, September 1964, p. 636; Adebayo Adedeji, 'Prospects of Regional Economic Co-operation in West Africa', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8, 2, July 1970, p. 217; Julius Emeka Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism: the Economic Community of West African States', in International Organization, 39, Winter 1985, p. 124; and Mike Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa: reality or farce?', in Nigerian Forum (Lagos), 8, 4-6, 1988, p. 102; and Adibe, op. cit. pp. 199-201.
54. Claude E. Welch, Dream of Unity : pan-Africanism and political integration in West Africa (Ithaca, NY, 1966), pp. 344-5.
55. See Lynn K. Mytelka, 'A Genealogy of Francophone West and Equatorial African Regional Organisations', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 12, 2, June 1974, pp. 297-320, and George C. Abangwu, 'Systems Approach to Regional Integration in West Africa', in Journal of Common Market Studies (Oxford), 13, January-February 1975, pp. 116-33.
56. See Lynn K. Mytelka, 'A Genealogy of Francophone West and Equatorial African Regional Organisations', in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 12, 2, June 1974, pp. 297-320, and George C. Abangwu, 'Systems Approach to Regional Integration in West Africa', in Journal of Common Market Studies (Oxford), 13, January-February 1975, pp. 116-33.
57. John Ravenhill, 'Redrawing the Map of Africa?', in Donald Rothchild and Naomi Chazan (eds.), The Precarious Balance: state and society in Africa (Boulder and London, 1988), p. 301.
58. See Ralph I. Onwuka, 'Transnational Corporations and Regional Integration in West Africa', in Timothy M. Shaw and 'Sola Ojo (eds.), Africa and the International Political System (Lanham, MD, 1982), pp. 271-95; Aguibou Y. Yansané, Decolonization in West African States with French Colonial Legacy. Comparison and Contrast : development in Guinea, the Ivory Coast and Senegal, 1945-1980 (Cambridge, MA, 1984), pp. 406-11; Emeka Nwokedi, 'Sub-Regional Security and Nigerian Foreign Policy', in African Affairs (London), 84, 335, April 1985, pp. 196-7; and Okolo, loc. cit. pp. 136-46.
59. See Ralph I. Onwuka, 'Transnational Corporations and Regional Integration in West Africa', in Timothy M. Shaw and 'Sola Ojo (eds.), Africa and the International Political System (Lanham, MD, 1982), pp. 271-95; Aguibou Y. Yansané, Decolonization in West African States with French Colonial Legacy. Comparison and Contrast : development in Guinea, the Ivory Coast and Senegal, 1945-1980 (Cambridge, MA, 1984), pp. 406-11; Emeka Nwokedi, 'Sub-Regional Security and Nigerian Foreign Policy', in African Affairs (London), 84, 335, April 1985, pp. 196-7; and Okolo, loc. cit. pp. 136-46.
60. See Ralph I. Onwuka, 'Transnational Corporations and Regional Integration in West Africa', in Timothy M. Shaw and 'Sola Ojo (eds.), Africa and the International Political System (Lanham, MD, 1982), pp. 271-95; Aguibou Y. Yansané, Decolonization in West African States with French Colonial Legacy. Comparison and Contrast : development in Guinea, the Ivory Coast and Senegal, 1945-1980 (Cambridge, MA, 1984), pp. 406-11; Emeka Nwokedi, 'Sub-Regional Security and Nigerian Foreign Policy', in African Affairs (London), 84, 335, April 1985, pp. 196-7; and Okolo, loc. cit. pp. 136-46.
61. See Ralph I. Onwuka, 'Transnational Corporations and Regional Integration in West Africa', in Timothy M. Shaw and 'Sola Ojo (eds.), Africa and the International Political System (Lanham, MD, 1982), pp. 271-95; Aguibou Y. Yansané, Decolonization in West African States with French Colonial Legacy. Comparison and Contrast : development in Guinea, the Ivory Coast and Senegal, 1945-1980 (Cambridge, MA, 1984), pp. 406-11; Emeka Nwokedi, 'Sub-Regional Security and Nigerian Foreign Policy', in African Affairs (London), 84, 335, April 1985, pp. 196-7; and Okolo, loc. cit. pp. 136-46.
62. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
63. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
64. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
65. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
66. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
67. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
68. See Ashok Kumar and Eghosa Osagie, 'Problems of the Economic Community of West African States', in A. Bolaji Akinyemi (ed.), Nigeria and the World: readings in Nigenan foreign policy (Ibadan, 1978), pp. 48-52; Uka Ezenwe, Ecowas and the Economic Integration of West Africa (London, 1983), pp. 138-51; Femi Aribisala, 'The Ecowas: a progress report', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 11, 1, 1985, pp. 85-6; Okolo, 'Integrative and Cooperative Regionalism', pp. 130-3; Okwechime, 'Economic Integration in West Africa', loc. cit. p. 110; R. Omotayo Olaniyan, 'Nigeria and West Africa: problems and prospects in future relations', in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 12, 1-2, 1986, pp. 143-4; and Carol Lancaster, 'The Lagos Three: economic regionalism in sub-Saharan Africa', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 202.
69. Phoebe Kornfeld, 'Ecowas, the First Decade: towards collective self-reliance, or maintenance of the status quo?', in Julius Emeka Okolo and Stephen Wright (eds.), West African Regional Cooperation and Development (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford, 1990), p. 87.
70. Adibe, loc. cit. pp. 210-11, and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, 'African Political Economy and Foreign Policy in the 1990s: towards a revisionist framework for Ecowas states', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. p. 7.
71. Adibe, loc. cit. pp. 210-11, and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, 'African Political Economy and Foreign Policy in the 1990s: towards a revisionist framework for Ecowas states', in Shaw and Okolo (eds.), op. cit. p. 7.
72. Lynne Brydon, 'Ghanaian Responses to the Nigerian Expulsions of 1983', in African Affairs, 84, 337, October 1985, p. 583.
73. Welch, op. cit. pp. 352-3.
74. See, for example, Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'The Marginality of African States', in Gwendolyn M. Carter and Patrick O'Meara (eds.), African Independence: the first twmtyfive years (Bloomington, IN, 1985), pp. 45-70; Robert H. Jackson, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in Jackson and Alan James (eds.), States in a Changing World (Oxford, 1993), pp. 136-56; and Crawford Young, 'The Heritage of Colonialism', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 26.
75. See, for example, Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'The Marginality of African States', in Gwendolyn M. Carter and Patrick O'Meara (eds.), African Independence: the first twmtyfive years (Bloomington, IN, 1985), pp. 45-70; Robert H. Jackson, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in Jackson and Alan James (eds.), States in a Changing World (Oxford, 1993), pp. 136-56; and Crawford Young, 'The Heritage of Colonialism', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 26.
76. See, for example, Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, 'The Marginality of African States', in Gwendolyn M. Carter and Patrick O'Meara (eds.), African Independence: the first twmtyfive years (Bloomington, IN, 1985), pp. 45-70; Robert H. Jackson, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in Jackson and Alan James (eds.), States in a Changing World (Oxford, 1993), pp. 136-56; and Crawford Young, 'The Heritage of Colonialism', in Harbeson and Rothchild (eds.), op. cit. 1995, p. 26.
77. William J. Foltz, 'The Organization of African Unity and the Resolution of Africa's Conflicts', in Francis M. Deng and I. William Zartman (eds.), Conflict Resolution in Africa (Washington, DC, 1991), pp. 347-66.
78. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, pp. 35-6; Nancy L. Hoepli (ed.), West Africa Today (New York, 1971) pp. 12-17; Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', 1989, pp. 673-7 and 'War and State in Africa', 1990, pp. 124-5.
79. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, pp. 35-6; Nancy L. Hoepli (ed.), West Africa Today (New York, 1971) pp. 12-17; Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', 1989, pp. 673-7 and 'War and State in Africa', 1990, pp. 124-5.
80. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, pp. 35-6; Nancy L. Hoepli (ed.), West Africa Today (New York, 1971) pp. 12-17; Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', 1989, pp. 673-7 and 'War and State in Africa', 1990, pp. 124-5.
81. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, pp. 35-6; Nancy L. Hoepli (ed.), West Africa Today (New York, 1971) pp. 12-17; Herbst, 'The Creation and Maintenance of National Boundaries in Africa', 1989, pp. 673-7 and 'War and State in Africa', 1990, pp. 124-5.
82. Saadia Touval. 'Africa's Frontiers: reactions to a colonial legacy', in International Afairs (London), 42, October 1966, pp. 642-44.
83. See Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, 'The National Question and the Crisis of Instability in Africa', in Emmanuel Hansen (ed.), Africa: perspectives on peace and development (London, 1987), p. 55.
84. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, p. 357; Jackson and Rosberg, loc. cit.; and Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa', p. 348.
85. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, p. 357; Jackson and Rosberg, loc. cit.; and Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa', p. 348.
86. See Welch, op. cit. 1966, p. 357; Jackson and Rosberg, loc. cit.; and Matthews, 'Interstate Conflicts in Africa', p. 348.
87. See Ali A. Mazrui, 'The Bondage of Boundaries', in The Economist (London), 11 September 1993, p. 34.
88. See Ravenhill, loc. cit. and Robert D. Kaplan, 'The Coming Anarchy', in Atlantic Monthly (Boston), 273, February 1994, pp. 44-76.
89. See Stanislav Andreski, The African Predicament: a study in the pathology of modernization (London, 1968), p. 35, and Matthews, 'Domestic and Interstate Conflict in Africa', p. 484. Interestingly, this conclusion both overlaps and contradicts that reached by Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge, 1996). While concurring that strong states are a necessary condition for peace, and that weak states are sites of civil war, I would emphasise that weak states and weak powers in West Africa have also maintained an external 'negative' peace among themselves.
90. See Stanislav Andreski, The African Predicament: a study in the pathology of modernization (London, 1968), p. 35, and Matthews, 'Domestic and Interstate Conflict in Africa', p. 484. Interestingly, this conclusion both overlaps and contradicts that reached by Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge, 1996). While concurring that strong states are a necessary condition for peace, and that weak states are sites of civil war, I would emphasise that weak states and weak powers in West Africa have also maintained an external 'negative' peace among themselves.
91. See Stanislav Andreski, The African Predicament: a study in the pathology of modernization (London, 1968), p. 35, and Matthews, 'Domestic and Interstate Conflict in Africa', p. 484. Interestingly, this conclusion both overlaps and contradicts that reached by Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge, 1996). While concurring that strong states are a necessary condition for peace, and that weak states are sites of civil war, I would emphasise that weak states and weak powers in West Africa have also maintained an external 'negative' peace among themselves.
92. See Jeffrey Herbst, 'Challenges to Africa's Boundaries in the New World Order', in Journal of International Affairs, 46, Summer 1992, p. 25.